EAD WORKING 

PIPE BENDING 
TANK ca, ROOF WORK 



WILLIAM HUTTON 




rtass TT24>£ 
Book. Jl^ 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSm 



LEAD WORKING 

PIPE BENDING, TANK AND ROOF WORK 



A Manual of Practice in Bending Lead Pipe 
for Interior Plumbing and Beating Sheet Lead 
for Application as Tank Linings and Flashings, 
Gutters, Ridges, and Other Roof Coverings 



By 

WILLIAM BUTTON 

Practical Plumber and Author of: 
''Joint Wiping and Lead Wm'k," 
''Country Plumbing Practice,''' "Hot 
Water Supply and Kitchen Boiler 
Connections'''' and " Contract and 
Estimate Record Book for Plumbers " 




U. p. C. BOOK COMPANY, Inc. 

241-249 WEST 39th STREET 
NEW YORK 

NINETEEN HUNDRED AND SEVENTEEN 






Copyrighted, 1917, 

By 

U. P. C. BOOK COMPANY, Inc. 



m -7 1917 fP 

S)CI,A462924 fJ 

1^ i ,<> 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER I 



TOOLS AND THEIR USES 7 

Value of special knowledge of lead working — Advantages 
and disadvantages of lead as a roofing material — Re- 
sistance to corrosion — Protection of lead from lime — 
Suitability of lead for use in contact with acids — Quali- 
fications of the successful lead worker — Tools used in 
lead working. 

CHAPTER n 

MAKING A FOUR-INCH BEND . . . . . . . .15 

Proper way to store large-sized lead pipe — Removing 
dents in pipe — Importance of securing smooth bore before 
beginning bending operation — Heating the pipe to facili- 
tate bending — Method of holding pipe to make bending 
easy — Necessity of proceeding slowly — Proper manner 
of using wooden dresser — Retaining proper thickness of 
metal in bends — Protection of pipe from contact with 
bench — Manipulation of dummy — Testing heat in bending 
operation — Die marks on pipe a guide to proper working 
of lead — Supporting pipe to make dummy work easy — 
Using dummy by leverage — Bending long pipes — Extend- 
ing length of dummy — Use of lead flap — Finishing bend 
to secure fine appearance — Making offsets on pipe — 
Opening a bend not desirable practice. 

CHAPTER III 



BENDING PIPE BY USE OF BOBBINS 



Bending pipes up to 3 inches in diameter — Difficulty of 
using dummy — Disadvantages of sand method in large 
pipes — Cause of leaks at bends — Throttling of bends — 
Bobbin method of bending pipe — Description of bobbins 
— Passing bobbin through pipe by driving or pulling — 
Removal of dents by bp^bl^ins and .dummy — The lead ball 
as an aid to driving b'Obbins — Mfealting the pipe previous 
to bending — Many small bending operations better than 
one quick bend — Manner of pulling bobbin through pipe — 
Bends of fairly long radius preferable — Methods of making 
bends of various radii — Use of followers on long bends — 
Care required to prevent damage to heel of bend — Con- 
ditions where hand-made bends are of special value. 

1 



2 LEAD WORKING 

CHAPTER IV PAGE 

BEATING UP A SHORT HEEL BEND 31 

Need of short turn bends — Preparation of pipe — Drilling 
hole to commence bend — Cutting notch in pipe — Using 
bending pin to start bend at throat — Dressing up the 
heel — Tendency of bend to widen — Tendency of heel to 
become thin — How to prevent thinning of lead — How to 
wipe a joint on a short turn bend. 

CHAPTER V 

BENDING PIPE BY USE OF SAND 36 

Why sand is fitted for bending pipes — Use of other mate- 
rials — Characteristics of good bending sand — Drying sand 
before using — Closing ends of pipe — Packing sand properly 
— Marking pipe at bending point — How to lay out angle 
to which bend is to be made — How to make a very sharp 
bend — How to dress the sides of the bend to secure 
uniform thickness of walls. 

CHAPTER VI 

BENDING PIPE BY USE OF SPRING 4^ 

How to use the spring properly — Why springs damage the 
pipe by improper use — Dressing pipe to remove dents — 
How to insert spring — Use of lubricants on springs — 
Noting position of spring in pipe to avoid damage by 
end — Care required in heating pipes where spring is used 
— How to sharpen a bend to any degree — Use of spring 
in long pipes — Other types of bending appliances — How 
to keep springs in condition. 

CHAPTER VII 

MAKING KNOT TRAPS ON LEAD PIPE 48 

Where knot traps are necessary — Preferred methods of 
bending traps — Disadvantage of spring in trap work — 
Importance of drying sand — Packing the sand properly — 
Various types of traps — Method of closing bends to obtain 
small radius of trap — Bringing legs of trap into align- 
ment — Dressing sides and throats of bends — Removing 
sand on completion of trap. 

CHAPTER VIII 

BEATING ROUND CORNERS ON SHEET LEAD .... 53 
Superiority of sheet lead in tank work and roofing — 
Various uses of sheet lead — Advantages of securing round 
corners on lead trays — How to mark ofi" the lead for a 
corner — Bossing the sheet to facilitate proper working — 
How to use the dressers to advantage — Maintaining proper 
thickness of lead — Beating lead down over a corner of 
board. 



CONTENTS S 

CHAPTER IX PAGE 

BEATING EXTERNAL ANGLES ON SHEET LEAD .... 58 
How to cut and mark sheet for angles — Use of mallet 
in beginning work — ^Necessity of keeping corners round as 
work progresses — Drawing the excess lead to top to avoid 
thickening of sheet — Final squaring of angle — Importance 
of using tools properly to avoid dents in lead — Height to 
which lead corners may be beaten — Drawing thickness 
away from angle when high upstands are made — How to 
work a corner down over woodwork — ^Avoidance of cutting 
sheet by proper handling. 

CHAPTER X 

BEATING INTERNAL ANGLES ON SHEET LEAD .... 62 

Why it is harder to work internal than external angles — 
Cutting lead correctly to make work easier — Marking the 
lead to start working — Use of round dresser — Drawing 
thickness of lead to points required — When to begin squar- 
ing the angle — How to dress the lead over a block. 

CHAPTER XI 

BEATING UP HOLLOW FLASHING ROLLS 66 

Effect of expansion on sheet lead — Proper method of join- 
ing sheets on lead roofing — How to form a hollow roll — 
Making the double lock — Completing the roll — Forming 
the junction with an upstand — Making a return roll at 
upstand — Making a return on roll at drip — How to stretch 
the lead to form the return — Use of lead plug to retain 
shape of roll at return — Where rolls on sheets are neces- 
sary. 

CHAPTER XII 

STRETCHING AND DRAWING LEAD FLASHINGS .... 71 
Need of lead in circular flashing work — Preparation of 
flashings for bell- shaped towers — Stretching the lead to se- 
cure proper shape — Retention of thickness and shape of 
lead by proper use of tools — How to hold the lead to retain 
shape of flashing while dressing — Bending flashing in re- 
verse direction and maintaining proper thickness. 

CHAPTER XIII 

CHIMNEY AND OTHER FLASHINGS 75 

Essential differences in lead and other roofing metals. 
Seams on horizontal surfaces. Expansion in roofing sheets 
— General practice in setting lead flashings — Flashings for 
brick chimney with gutter behind it — Methods of laying 
flashing over and under slates — Width of flashings — Pitch 



i 

LEAD WORKING ^ 

PAGE 

of chimney gutters — Height of upstands on chimney gutters j 

— Flashing caps for field stone chimneys — Step flashings — ' 

Fastening flashings in raglets or joints — Flashings on tile ', 

roof — Flashings on rubble walls. ^' 



CHAPTER XIV \ 

RIDGES, VALLEYS, FLATS AND JOINTS 81 | 

Flashings on dormers — Method of finishing side flashings - \ 

at front of window — Aprons, valleys and ridges on win- | 

dows — Method of forming ridges to fit roll — Width of val- * 

leys, ridges and flashings — Fastening lead ridges — Correct 

lengths of sheets to be used — Supporting lead in valleys — 

Center and box gutters — Making drips on long gutters — 

Capillary attraction at gutter joints and seams — Saddles 

on roofs and gutters — Pitch in box and center gutters — 

Outlets from box and cornice gutters — Hollow, solid and 

batten rolls — Copper cleats on rolls — Upstands and drips 

on hollow rolls — Supporting sheets on pitched roofs.. 

CHAPTER XV 

DOMES, FINIALS, PIPE FLASHINGS AND TANKS . . . . 100 
Suitability of lead for covering domes — Covering and flash- 
ing a hexagonal ventilator — Width of side flashings — Cov- 
ering the base of the ventilator — Flashing the sill and posts 
— How to find shape of roof bays — Making a ball finial — 
Making ornamental finials — Laying out pattern for finial 
base — ^Ornamenting base by bossing lead — Covering the 
finial post — Supporting the vane of finial — Lead conduct- 
ors and rain water heads — Flashings for soil-pipe vent- 
stacks — Lining tanks with lead burned seams — Fitting tie 
bars to tanks. 



PREFACE 

A PREFACE to this book is hardly necessary. Any plumber 
who has had a general experience knows that the possession 
of skill in manipulating lead pipe is a valuable asset. The 
examples of lead pipe bending and sheet lead working that 
follow are given in the hope that such as desire to acquire that 
skill will be helped attain it. That a large number of men do 
wish to become proficient in this line of work was made evi- 
dent by the extensive correspondence between author and 
interested readers when the text and illustrations began to 
appear in serial form in the pages of Metal Worker, Plumber 
and Steam Fitter. That the sheet lead work offers a new and 
profitable field to many contractors is also obvious. The qual- 
ity of building construction is rapidly improving. In many 
instances the use of sheet lead is almost imperative when cer- 
tain eff^ects are desired by the architect. Not every roofer 
can handle the work properly and herein lies the opportunity 
for profit and prestige. 



William Hutton. 



/"-i. 










^^M 







> 




Example of Ornamental Head Work 



Chapter I 
TOOLS AND THEIR USES 

The ability to bend lead pipes of large diameter to form 
a trap or to offset a pipe to clear an obstruction is possessed 
by too few and the number is growing less. This is due 
to the facility with which bends manufactured by machinery 
may be secured, but there are many instances when the abil- 
ity to make a bend of a special shape would save both time 
and money, and those who do possess the ability know this 
from experience. 

The use of sheet lead for flashings and other purposes 
is not only common in certain sections, but is increasing, and 
therefore a knowledge of the manner in which it may be 
handled is of equal importance to that of bending lead pipe. 
The value of the accomplishment may be measured in dol- 
lars and cents ; its possession will forward the interests of 
any workman and give the employer a lead over his com- 
petitors. If the number of plumbers who are also expert 
lead workers is small, those numbered as such will be valued 
the higher. 

It has been often said that the day of lead and the lead 
worker has gone and that in the buildings of the future 
lead will have no place. It would be futile to deny that the 
metal has serious shortcomings that unsuit it for use in many 
of the modern buildings now erected. At the same time, 
it has compensating features — features that are not pos- 
sessed by any of the other metals available for use in the 
manufacture of sanitary and plumbing fixtures and the 
removal of the wastes or the ventilation of fixture traps. 
These are mentioned later in this chapter. 

7 



8 



LEAD WORKING 



One of the disadvantages of lead is its low tensile strength, 
necessitating the use of pipes of considerable weight when 
they have to withstand pressure. It is soft and will sag 
easily when heated and improperly supported. It also has 
the peculiarity of remaining permanently elongated when 
expanded, at least it will not entirely regain its original con- 
formation when it contracts after being expanded by heat. 




Pig. 1. Specimens of Lead Bending and Beating 

These specimens of sand, spring, dummy and bobbin bend- 
ing of pipes and traps and of working slieet lead at angles 
of gutters and junctions of flashings were made by the 
author especially for illustrating this book. 

This leads to breakages at sharp angles and at its junction 
with other metals. If satisfaction is to be obtained where 
it is used, these peculiarities must be studied and proper 
allowance made to mitigate the strains and stresses to which 
the pipe will be subjected. 

A valuable property of lead is its freedom from corrosion 
by water or by the action of the atmosphere. A very thin 



TOOLS AND THEIR USES 



9 



oxide forms on the surface of the pipe immediately it is 
manufactured and this is sufficient to protect it from further 
action by the elements under all ordinary circumstances. 
Practically the only conditions in buildings which lead to 
corrosion of the metal are those to be found where lead pipes 
are carried through walls or floors exposed to the action of 
lime or cement concrete in the presence of moisture. In such 




Fig. 2. Tools Used in Lead Bending and Beating 



cases the lead will become pitted and brittle in course of 
time and will break readily under the strains of expansion, 
contraction or the weight of itself if unsupported. The 
remedy for this is obvious. The pipes should be protected 
where they come in contact with these substances by cov- 
ering them with some material which will not be affected 
by contact therewith. 

Asphaltum or pitch is commonly used. The pipes may 
be wrapped in hair felt or heavy paper or an iron pipe may 
be imbedded in the wall or floor and the lead pipes carried 



10 LEAD WORKING 

through it. The latter method is easily the best and it 
also affords an opportunity of removing the lead pipes at 
any time without trouble. 

Another advantage possessed by lead for use in building 
construction and in manufacturing operations is its ability 
to withstand the action of acids. None of the acids, such 
as sulphuric, nitric or hydrochloric acid, which are used to 
such extent in the metal and allied manufacturing indus- 
tries has any effect on it and, therefore, in lining tanks and 
in conveying liquids containing acids it is largely used. It 
also offers a good medium for the protection of woodwork 
from damage by acids and in the covering of sink drain 
boards and in the lining of sinks for use in chemical labora- 
tories it is used to advantage. 

As its nature is such that it is easily bent and worked into 
various shapes it has always been looked upon as being pecu- 
liarly well suited for the supply of water and the conveying 
of wastes from plumbing fixtures. From its Latin name, 
plumhum, the worker in it has obtained his distinguishing 
appellation, "plumber." 

Although in the large modern building its use is practically 
obsolete, owing to the difficulty of using a form of construc- 
tion that is lasting and satisfactory under the heavy strains 
it would be called upon to bear, it probably will remain for 
many years as the best and most suitable metal for much of 
the work done in houses of smaller dimensions. For all the 
connections of waste and soil pipes under floors it is looked 
upon as being the best owing to its facility in yielding under 
slight strains and distortions caused by settlement or shrink- 
age in the building. This ability to change its formation 
sufficiently to maintain a tight connection with the outlets of 
bath tubs, lavatory basins or water closets, for instance, avoids 
many breakages that would otherwise be experienced in porce- 



TOOLS AND THEIR USES 11 

lain goods. It may also be bent so as to avoid the necessity 
of cutting into floor or wall timbers to the extent that would 
be necessary in using pipes of a harder metal. This makes 
its use in the installation of plumbing in old houses in many 
cases compulsory. 

This bending of pipes when of large diameter requires the 
exercise of considerable skill and in many instances doubtless 
the lack of this skill has induced the substitution of other 
metals in plumbing construction where lead would have 
secured a much more satisfactory job. As this lack of skill 
in lead working is in most cases purely the result of lack of 
opportunity to acquire it, and as practically every plumber 
who does acquire it takes a peculiar pride in his proficiency, 
this book has been prepared to give those who may not have 
had an opportunity of seeing the metal used to any extent, 
some insight into the various methods employed in bending 
pipes of the sizes generally handled by plumbers in domestic 
sanitary work. 

These specimens of sand, spring, dummy and bobbin bend- 
ing of pipes and traps and of working sheet lead at angles 
of gutters and junctions of flashings were made by the author 
especially for illustrating this book. 

No one may hope to become an expert worker of lead 
merely by reading these descriptions or by reading any text 
book on the subject. Mechanical proficiency is only attained 
by practice and close observation. This book has been 
planned with this fully in mind and illustrated so that every 
necessary motion and application of tools in the various steps 
will be clearly shown for the beginners' guidance. If he 
follows the instructions closely and studies at the same time 
the illustrations accompanying the instructions he will have 
a good knowledge of how to proceed and his progress to 
proficiency will then be measured only by his ability and by 



12 LEAD WORKING 

the amount of practice he is able to secure. To paraphrase 
the words of the author of a book on engineering who gives 
the formula for the production of an engineer as : Ability -|- 
Education -\- Training -{- Experience ^ Engineer. So in 
the branch of trade in which the reader would hope to excel : 
Aptitude -j- Observation -j- Patience + Practice ^=^ Lead 
Worker. 

Before attempting to produce any of the bends or other 
lead work described it is essential that the embryo lead worker 
be provided with suitable tools. A kit which comprises all 
that will be required in executing the kind of lead work in 
which the average plumber will ever have the opportunity of 
engaging, unless he should happen to be located in a country 
where it is used to a greater extent than it is or is likely to 
be in this, is illustrated herewith. 

This kit consists of various shaped dressers made from a 
superior grade of boxwood, a wood peculiarly well suited 
for such tools owing to the closeness of the grain and its 
ability to stand hard usage without splintering. It also be- 
comes smooth in use and does not mark the lead as some 
other woods do. If the tools are oiled occasionally they will 
last for an indefinite period. 

Tools and Their Uses 

The tools used by a plumber in beating and bending lead 
are shown in Fig. 2. At the top of the illustration, the bend- 
ing pin is shown. This is a steel pin of a taper shape, bent 
to form an offset and used, as will be described later, to raise 
part of the lead pipe when commencing a bending operation. 
It is also used to form a lever when bending a smaller pipe 
and for various other purposes. Immediately under it, two 
flat dressers are shown. These are made of hard wood and 
are of different weights. They have a flat face and square 



TOOLS AND THEIR USES 13 

edges and are used in removing dents and wrinkles from sheet 
lead and in the various processes of beating it up at corners 
as well as in the process of bending lead pipe. The back of 
the dresser is rounded so that it may also be used as occasion 
requires. 

The springs shown under the dressers are familiar to most 
plumbers and are used in bending the smaller sizes of lead 
pipe. Again under them are shown the dummies which are 
used in beating out the dents formed in large sized pipes after 
they are bent. These are cast lead balls to which a handle 
of brass pipe or cane is attached. The handle is generally 
about 3 ft. long but may be extended by adding a length of 
pipe to it should it be desired to bend a pipe at some distance 
from the end. 

The Qgg shaped balls in the central foreground of the 
illustration are bobbins. These are used to pass through the 
lead pipe for the purpose of removing dents, thus causing 
it to regain its correct diameter in the process of bending and 
oifsetting it. The largest of the four has a hole drilled in 
it through which a rope is passed by which it may be pulled 
through the pipe instead of driving it should it be found 
more convenient to adopt that means. The method of using 
these tools wdll be described in due course. 

At the left of the illustration, the gasoline torch which is 
used to warm the lead pipe appears, and at the right hand 
side the expanding pliers familiar to most plumbers are 
shown. 

The dresser in front of the torch is what is termed a bossing 
stick and is used in beating up the sheet lead at angles and 
at corners where it may be formed into a gutter or a flashing. 
This dresser is simply a piece of hard wood rounded and 
made of an offset shape but having a round body instead of 
a flat face. 



U LEAD WORKING 

The dresser underneath the expanding pHers is of similar 
shape, but instead of being round, the part which is used to 
dress the lead is flat with rounded sides. One side of the 
beating part is slightly concave and the other convex. The 
object of this is to afford a smooth surface for dressing the 
throat and heel of lead bends to remove the minor dents and 
imperfections when large pipes are being bent. 

Two pear shaped mallets are shown in front of these 
dressers. They are used principally in sheet lead working 
operations. The end of each is rounded so that lead may be 
beaten down into depressions or otherwise handled without 
marking it. 

At the left and immediately in front of one of the mallets 
is shown a hammer and at the right hand side a dresser of a 
wedge shape. This is used to set the lead sharply into angles, 
to form small depressions and to mark the lead when beating 
up the side of an upstand such as would be the case in laying 
long lengths of lead flashing. Beside them are shown the 
drift plugs which are used by plumbers to remove the dents 
in small lead pipes before passing the bending springs into 
them. 

These are all of the tools that are required to accomplish 
the simple examples of lead bending that are necessary to 
meet most of the requirements of the well equipped and 
modem plumber. It is essential for good work that they 
should be kept in thorough condition and that the wooden 
tools should not be used to drive nails, to beat anything 
harder than lead, or that they should be allowed to lie in a 
tool chest in contact with tools having sharp edges. Dressers 
may be kept in perfect condition and free from splinters if 
they are coated with linseed oil occasionally. 



Chapteu II 
MAKING A FOUR-INCH BEND 

The condition of lead pipe after it has been in the store for 
a few months, or after it has passed through the hands of a few 
freight handlers and teamsters, is usually such that it requires 
considerable dressing up before it can be put into use. The 
larger sizes are of course more liable to damage than those of 
smaller diameter owing to the larger area entailing less resist- 
ance to flattening of the bore of the pipe. This is due to the 
fact that the thickness of the lead is not increased in propor- 
tion to the increase in the size of the bore in the kinds of 
pipe usually handled by plumbers. 

Before commencing to bend 4-in. pipe, therefore, it is 
almost always necessary to remove indentations in its surface 
and to bring the pipe back to a true circular shape. In 
passing it might be well to recommend that in storing lead 
pipe in a horizontal position it be laid on shelves having 
capacity to provide for each size being separated and that it 
be laid in one tier only. 

If lengths of pipe are laid on top of larger sizes, as is 
commonly done, the lower pipe will become flat in a very 
short time. 

The easiest way to remove the dents and to recover the 
true shape is to beat out the dents and flat places with a 
"dummy." This, as before described, is a ball of lead some- 
what egg-shaped and attached to a handle of brass pipe some 
3 ft. long. The operation of smoothing the pipe prelim- 
inar}^ to bending it is shown in Fig. 3. After all the dents 
have been removed the pipe may be slipped over a wooden 
mandril or a smooth pipe a little less than the diameter of 

15 



16 LEAD WORKING 

the lead pipe, and dressed perfectly smooth on this by using 
the flat dresser which may be seen lying beside the pipe in 

Fig. 3. 

Although the first operation in making a bend comprises 
making a dent, the smoothing up of the piece of pipe to be 
used before commencing the bend should never be omitted, 
as otherwise a good-looking bend will be hard to secure. Lead 
is always much easier bent and worked into the desired shape 
when it is warm, and therefore the pipe should be kept hot 
throughout the process of making a bend. 

The most convenient means of applying the heat is 

undoubtedly the gasolene 
torch, applied as shown 
in Fig. 4. An ordinary 
fire-pot may be used and 
the bend held over it. 
Before gasolene torches 
and fire-pots were so 
Fig. 3. Taking Dents Out of Pipe Pee- commonly used the pipes 

PAKATOEY TO MAKING A BeND Oi J U 

were oiten warmed by 
holding them over shavings burning on a tray. When a 
torch is used, however, there is less danger of overheating and 
melting the pipe, as it can be removed immediately the pipe 
is seen to be hot enough. Besides this it is easier to apply the 
heat to the pipe than the pipe to the heat, and this is espe- 
cially true if the bend is being made on the end of a long piece 
of pipe. 

To test the state of the pipe and to judge when heat 
enough has been applied, the rather unaesthetic method of 
spitting upon it is commonly resorted to. When fairly hot 
small drops of water will sizzle on the pipe, but when it is 
about as hot as it is safe to make it the drops will fly off" as 
they strike the hot surface, and as soon as this is noticed the 




MAKING A FOUR-INCH BEND 



17 




Fig. 4. 



Wakming the Pipe Befoeb 
Bexdixg 



torch should be laid aside and the first bend or dent made in 
the pipe. 

The first bend or two can be made by holding the hand, 
protected by a thick 
cloth on the point at 
which it is desired the 
bend should commence 
and then pulling up on 
the pipe with the other 
hand, as in Fig. 5. 

In this matter of mak- 
ing these bends lies the 
whole secret of speed and good workmanship. It lies in "mak- 
ing haste slowly." When the first bend is taken the pipe should 
be brought up only a few degrees. The amount shown as being 
secured in Fig. 6 is ample for one bend. If this is exceeded 
the dent left is so deep that the difficulty of beating it back 
is needlessly increased and consequently time is lost. As soon 
as the first bend has been taken the flat dresser, which may be 
seen lying at the end of the pipe in Fig. 5, is taken up and 
the bulge at the sides of the bent pipe dressed, not inward, 

but toward the heel or 
back of the bend, as is 
being done in Fig. 6. 
This is to maintain the 
correct thickness of the 
lead as the bend pro- 
gresses. If it were not 
dressed in this way the 
heel would become quite 
thin and the throat or inside of the bend extremely thick, owing 
to the stretching of the one side and the compression of the 
other caused by the different radii of the parts of circles their 




Fig. 5. :\Iatvi: 



'HE l-ii;-^! Bexd 




18 LEAD WORKING 

surfaces describe. A skilful operator can give his dresser 
such an oblique motion that the blow tends to drive the thick- 
ness from the throat toward the heel, and this must be aimed 

at throughout. 

When the bend has 
been dressed in this fash- 
ion until the diameter is 
about right in the cross- 
section the dent should 
be dressed out with the 

FIG. 6. DEESSING THE BULGE BACK TO ^Ummj. It is eaSJ tO do 

THE HEEL this if the pipe is held as 

shown in Fig. 7. The cloth used in bending should be used 
to lay the pipe on, as it will thus protect it from being marked 
by the bench. 

In beating up the throat it is best to bring up the lead until 
not only the correct diameter of the pipe has been reached, 
but to a point a little beyond this. Then with the aid of the 
bending dresser with the rounded edges previously described, 
and which is formed especially for this purpose, the throat 
is dressed back and the little uneven places made smooth. 

The dressing need not 
be carried on until every 
mark has been eliminated, 
but at each bend the cor- 
rect area of the pipe at 
all points should be as 
nearly maintained as pos- 
sible. Practice will en- 

Fig. 7. TA^mlSmHTHE Dent 
able the operator to ma- 
nipulate the dummy so that very little dressing back will be 
necessary to secure a good radial and correct sectional shape. 
The application of this dresser is shown in Fig. 8, and it may 




MAKING A FOUR-INCH BEND 



19 




Dressing Up the Theoat 



l^e noted that the bend is being held clear of the bench to Save 
denting the heel as the throat is being dressed. 

After the shape at the bend has been regained, the torch 
is again applied and the ^ 
pipe warmed as before. 
The correct heat should 
be tested for while the 
pipe is being warmed. 
Another few degrees are 
gained on the bend, and 
the bulging sides are 
dressed toward the back, 
as was done at the first bend. If there are any little flattened 
places on the heel they are also removed with the aid of the 
dummy and the flat dresser. These operations are repeated 
throughout as each bend is taken and the dent and bulge made 
thereby repeated. 

In Fig. 9 the bulge is shown being dressed back. It may 
be noticed that the bend is held on a cloth clear of the bench 
while this is being done. This enables the operator to dress 
the lead back eff'ectively b}^ holding the pipe where the stroke 

of the dresser will be 
most efl'ective, and it also 
prevents the other side 
of the pipe from being 
damaged by contact with 
the bench when the dress- 
ing is being done. The 
throat will also have to 
be dressed after bring- 
ing out the dent with the dummy, and this operation is shown 
in Fig. 10. 

About this stage it will be noticed, if the tools are properlj 




Deessixg the Bulge Back to 
THE Heel 



20 



LEAD WORKING 




Fig. 10. Deessing the Thkoat Smooth 



applied, that the longitudinal markings of the pipe due to 
the die through which the lead was forced in process of manu- 
facture begin to show how much the operator has suceeded in 

-. driving the thickness at 
the throat back to the 
heel of the bend. If he 
has merely dressed it in- 
ward the markings will 
remain straight, and at 
the point where the pipe 
is bent they will remain 
parallel with the center 
line of the bend. If, however, the thickness has been satis- 
factorily distributed these lines will show a decided dip at the 
bend and will run toward the heel. 

When a number of bends have been taken and the bend 
has been brought up to about 30 deg., it will be found that it 
is a little more difficult to manipulate the dummy. It will then 
be found much easier to support the pipe, as shown in Fig. 
11, placing a dresser or block of wood to act as a heel and 
then to work the handle as a lever. About this stage also 
it will be found harder 
to make the bend, partly 
owing to the thickening 
of the throat by the 
compression of the lead 
and also by reason of a 
reduction in the lever- 
age against the hand 
that the bending has 
brought about. The bends are then easier made over the knee, 
as shown in Fig. IS, and to get around to all parts of 
the dent the brass handle of the dummy may be bent as 



I 




Fig. 11. Using the Dummy Over a 

Fulcrum 



MAKING A FOUR-INCH BEND 



21 




Fig. 12. Easy Way to Make a Bend 



shown in Fig. 13, or as much more as ma}^ be neces- 
sary. 

If the bend is being made on a long length of pipe it may 
be found more convenient 
to extend the handle of 
the dummy by threading 
the end and fitting a 
coupling into which a 
straight piece of pipe 
may be screwed. With 
this arrangement it is 
easy to reach in from 
both ends of the pipe and to remove the dent at the throat 
without recourse to bending the handle. 

When the bend has been brought up to the correct pitch, 
which is usually about 80 deg., so as to allow of a pitch 
to the outlet of the bend while the inlet is maintained in a 
vertical position, a final and more careful dressing is given 
with the flat dresser, and then a piece of sheet lead about 3 in. 
by 10 in. is secured and part of it roughly bent to form 
a handle by which it may be firmly held. This piece of lead, 

or flap as it would now 
be termed, is applied as 
shown in Fig. 14, and by 
its aid a smooth surface 
is secured. The contact 
of lead to lead shows the 
little indentations that 
cannot be removed by the 
dresser, and these are re- 
moved by the dummy until a perfectly smooth finish is ob- 
tained. The appearance of the finished bend and the shape 
of the flap are shown in Fig. 15. 




The Dummy Bent to Get 

Aeouxd the Bend 



LEAD WORKING 




Fig. 14. Using Le 



AS Deessbe 



If It is desired to secure a finish equal to the original sur- 
face the pipe may be scoured with sand and water applied on 
a cloth and finally smoothed off with fine emery in oil. This 

may be done if the bend 
is to be placed in an ex- 
posed position when the 
improved appearance is 
worth the additional la- 
bor necessary to secure it. 
Sometimes the ability 
to make an offset on lead 
pipe proves to be of con- 
siderable value to its possessor. This operation simply 
consists of repeating the operations already described 
in the making of a 90-deg. bend, but of course making the 
second bend in the opposite direction. It may be preferred 
to give the offset a longer pitch than would be given if the 
bend were brought up so far before the second one is made, 
and this makes the offset easier to make. The second bend 
will be found a little harder than the first, owing to the diffi- 
culty in holding the pipe 
while dressing or applying 
the dummy, and it is ad- 
visable to have plenty of 
cloth between the pipe and 
the bench, as there will be 
considerable liability to 
damage the first bend un- 
less it is protected. 

It will also be necessary to use the dummy entirely from 
one end, and the handle will have to be bent to suit the situa- 
tion of the dent. The method of manipulating the dummy 
shown in Fig. 11 will be found superior when dressing the 




Fig. 15. The 4-Inch Bend Deessed 
AND Ready foe Use. Note the 
Easy Cueve of the Bend 



MAKING A FOUR-INCH BEND 23 

dents from the second bend after it has progressed a few 
steps. It is often advantageous to use a bend of 45-deg. 
pitch to make a connection from a water closet to a vertical 
soil stack. While this may often be done by using cast-iron 
bends, there are occasions when these would bring the outlet 
too far from the wall. In such cases it is easy to make a 
45-deg. bend on a lead pipe and so overcome the difficulty. 
It is never advisable to try to '*open" a bend from 90 deg. to 
a lesser angle. It will be found both easier and quicker to 
make the necessary bend from straight pipe. 




Fig. 



Chapter III 

« 

BENDING PIPE BY USE OF BOBBINS 

A BEND on 3-in. lead pipe may be made to any ang-le in 
several different ways. The first method has alr-eady been 
described in the making of a; 4-in. bend. That is the method of 
bending the pipe and dressing out with a dummy the dent 

that results each time. 
A 3-in. bend is a little 
harder to make by this 
method than a 4-in. one, 
however, owing to the 
smaller diameter of the 
pipe affording less room 
for an effective stroke 
with the dummy. There- 
fore the dummy method 
is not so fast as some others which will be described. 

Among those may be mentioned the sand bending method 
which is commonly used for smaller pipes. When bending 
a pipe of the larger diameters this method possesses serious 
disadvantages. The principal of these is that the heel of the 
bend becomes very thin as the lead is bent, while the throat 
becomes correspondingly thick. Therefore if a very sharp 
bend is attempted it is possible that the lead may become 
so thin as to give out in a short time if much hot water is 
wasted through it. 

This, by the way, is the cause of much movement of the 
lead in expanding and contracting and consequently a weak 
spot such as would appear at the heel of the bend in this 
case would very quickly result in a crack and the develop- 
ment of a leak. 



16. Driving a Bobbin Through 
THE Pipe to Remove Dents 



BENDING PIPE BY USE OF BOBBINS 25 

The throat of the bend also tends to become throttled or 
contracted, as it is very hard to pack the sand firmly enough 
to maintain the correct shape when the strain of bending is 
put on it. Although this form of bending pipes is quite satis- 
factory on pipe up to 2 in. in diameter, it cannot be recom- 
mended on a 3-in. pipe. 

Probably the method that will meet with most approval by 
any one trying the seA'^eral methods mentioned is that which 
is here shown in the reproduced photographs. This is known 
as the bobbin method and consists merely in removing the 
dents resulting from bending the pipe with the aid of a 
specially shaped wooden 
plug of approximately 
the same diameter as 
the inside of the pipe. 
This bobbin can either 
be driven or pulled 
through the pipe with 

a rope passed through ^^^ ^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^ g^^^^^ ^^ 
a hole drilled through Bends required 

its longer axis. It is the latter method that is illustrated 
in the views, and it is this one which is most commonly used. 

The bobbin used is turned out of a piece of hard, close 
grained wood. Lignum-vit^e, if procurable, is the best for 
this purpose, as it takes a fine, smooth finish which is not 
easily aff'ected by contact with other tools or with the pipe 
in use or injured b}^ dampness. 

The bobbin should be a little smaller at one end than the 
other, and the shape may be described as similar to an egg 
with flattened ends. 

Through the longer axis a hole large enough to allow of 
a piece of sash cord or clothes line should be passed. The 
cord should have a large loop made on one end so that it may 




26 LEAD WORKING 

be readily attached to some firm post or other convenient pro- 
jecting object when the bend is being made. The other end 
is simply knotted to prevent the cord drawing through the 
bobbin. 

Before commencing to make the bend the piece of pipe 
should be well dressed to remove any dents or uneven places 
due to handling in the shop or in transit to the job. These 
dents may be conveniently removed with the dummy or by 
driving the bobbin through the pipe as is shown being done 
in the illustration in Fig. 16. As an alternative the pipe may 
be passed over a smooth piece of iron pipe of less diameter 

and dressed on this with 
the flat dresser. When 
driving the bobbin 
through the pipe a piece 
of wood should be used 
on which to hammer. 
On no account should a 

piece of iron pipe or 
Fig. 18. Pulling the Bobbin Through ■ u u j 

THE Bend BY Rope Fastened TO Hook ^ny iron bar be used. 

^^ ^^^^^^ Another method that is 

sometimes resorted to is to have a lead ball which is put into 

the pipe behind the bobbin and then by shaking the piece up 

and down the ball drives the bobbin through in the same 

manner in which a pile driver drives a stake or pile. 

After the pipe has been thoroughly dressed up it is warmed 

at the point where the bend it to be made with a gasoline 

torch or by any other convenient means, but as a rule it will 

be found most convenient to use a torch. The heat that is 

applied may be judged by applying a spray of water as 

described in the operation of making a 4-in. bend and the 

behavior of the globules as the temperature rises will tell 

when the pipe is as hot as it may safely be made. 




BENDING PIPE BY USE OF BOBBINS 27 

Then a bend of only a few degrees is made by pulling up 
against one hand as shown in Fig. 17, and the bulge which 
appears at the sides is dressed back toward the heel with the 
flat dresser. As much oblique motion as can be put into the 
stroke of the dresser should be used so as to drive the thickness 
of the lead to the heel, as this is the place that requires it 
most. If too much is attempted at each bend it will be very 
hard to pull the bobbin through. Consequently better speed 
is made when the bends are less in rise, but greater in number. 
After the sides have been dressed the bobbin may be put into 
the pipe, smaller end first and the rope passed through and 
fastened to a stake on 
the bench or to any con- 
venient post. It may be 
advisable to warm up 
the pipe a little before 
attempting to pull the 
bobbin through, but this 

will be determined by 

,1 rl rl ■ f li ^^®* ^^' Removing a Deep Dent with the 

tne speea maae m tne dummy to help the bobbin pass 

previous operations. Through 

In pulling the bobbin through short, sharp pulls should 
be made and the pipe should be held so that one hand will 
support the bend at the throat, a thick cloth being used to 
protect the hand, as shown in Fig. 18. The bend requires no 
dressing after the bobbin passes through it and another bend 
should be made immediately, and the sides dressed back as 
before and the bobbin pulled through in the same manner 
again. This operation is simply repeated until the desired 
angle has been obtained. 

It will be found a little harder to make a bend of very short 
radius by this method, as the bobbin will not readily make the 
turn, but it can be assisted to some extent by dressing the 




28 LEAD WORKING 

heel of the bend at the part to which the bobbin has been 
pulled and which is indicated by a slight ridge showing on 
the lead. This tapping by the dresser tends to turn the nose 
of the bobbin inward and so make it pass round the bend 
easier. It is an easy matter to dress the heel slightly, and to 
make another pull and repeat the operation until the bobbin 
has passed around the throat. In any case a bend on 3-in. 
pipe can be made sharp enough without the need of dressing 
to allow a bend to be fitted between the ceiling and the next 
floor when one is required for a shower bath, slop sink or 
similar fixture, and the larger radius of the bend is a recom- 
mendation if it can be 
fitted. 

If a bend of more 
than usually wide radius 
is desired this is simply 
obtained by changing 
the point at which the 
pipe is bent a little each 

PIG. 20. DKESSINa UP THE BEND ^-^^^ j^ ^^-^ ^^^^^^ ^ 

bend much past the 90-deg. angle can be made should condi- 
tions require it. If any miscalculation is made and too big 
a dent is made in the lead so that it is very hard to pull the 
bobbin through it should be raised far enough with the 
dummy, as shown in Fig. 19, to enable the bobbin to be pulled 
through with ease and then dressed smooth, as is shown being 
done in Fig. 20. It will also be found that if the bobbin is 
kept well coated with tallow the work will be much easier. 
The appearance of a finished bend of medium sharpness is 
shown in Fig. 21. A bend such as this offers little resistance 
to the flow through it and is also sharp enough to fit into 
almost any position. In making a bend with a bobbin and 
when instead of pulling it through a drive is desired, a number 




BENDING PIPE BY USE OF BOBBINS 



29 



of roughl}^ finished bobbins a little less in diameter than the 
first one are prepared. These are termed followers and the 
name describes their purpose, which is to follow the first 
bobbin around the turn of the bend and transmit to it the 
force of a blow struck on the last one in the straight pipe. 
In this way a bend can be made on quite a long piece of pipe, 
as all that is necessary is to put in the first bobbin and drive 
it to the bend with a long rod. Then the followers are put 
in and these are driven forward and around the bend until 
the bobbin emerges, when the followers wdll be easily removed 
owing to their smaller 
diameter. 

In driving these 
through it is necessary 
to exercise considerable 
care, as if too heavy a 
blow is used it may eas- 
ily happen that the bob- 
bin or some of the fol- Bend 
lowers will be driven through the heel of the bend. If the end 
one is tapped slightly with a dresser as the mark is seen to ap- 
proach the heel this need not happen. After the bend has been 
completed and if it is desired to finish it smoothly for fitting in 
an exposed position any minor dents should be removed with 
the dummy and then the bend should be carefully dressed with 
a lead flap made as described in the 4<-in. bending operation. 
This will secure a smooth finish which can be still further im- 
proved by polishing with wire cloth or coarse emery paper and 
finishing wit'h fine emery in oil. After rubbing finally with a 
soft cloth a finish equal to the original surface of the pipe 
as it left the factory will have been secured. 

This method of making a bend is very useful when it is 
desired to make an offset or where a vent pipe connection has 




Fig. 21. An l 



THE Finished 



30 LEAD WORKING 

to be made in close quarters and it is difficult to fit iron pipe 
and fittings. It is also a quick method of bending a piece of 
lead pipe to which a ferrule may be wiped and the part calked 
into a Y branch direct instead of using an extra iron bend 
to bring the direction of the inlet right. This makes not only 
a cheaper but a better j ob with fewer obstructions to the flow. 
A bend of 45 deg. can be made on 3-in. pipe in a very short 
time and practice soon makes the operation both easy and 
pleasant if it is gone about carefully and deliberately. 



Chapter IV 




Fig. 



BEATING UP A SHORT HEEL BEND 

What is termed a heel bend is not required so much in 
lead working in these times as it was when the use of enclosed 
tubs and sinks was common. At that time it was fitted to the 
fixtures wherever an overflow was necessary as well as in 
many other positions, such as that where the outlet of a fixture 
had of necessity to be held 
close up to the lower side 
of the wooden casing. 

As will be seen from the 
photographs, this method 
of making a bend al- 
lows of securing a much 
sharper turn than is 
easily obtained by the 
quicker methods of bend- 
ing the pipe by sand or by a spring. At the same time the 
piece that is to be beaten around is comparatively short and 
therefore the bend would be useless on that account for any 
ordinary purpose. There is one position, however, where such 
a bend is often particularly desirable, and that is where the 
vent connection is made to a 4-in. lead bend on the outlet of a 
water closet and' the pipe must be kept under the floor. 

In many cases the bend has to be fitted with its upper 
surface so close to the floor level that it is extremely difficult 
to get a connection made for a vent pipe, especially where 
the regulations call for this to be made to the horizontal part 
of the bend or where its connection to the vertical part is not 
possible or desirable. To bend a piece of pipe with a spring 

31 



'22. DiiiLLixG Hole ix Lead Pipe to 
Make Uppee End of V Notch. Fiest 
Peocess in Making Heel Bend 



LEAD WORKING 




Fig. 23. 



Sawixg Out Notch from End 
OF Pipe to Hole 



in a case like this does not give the sharp turn that is neces- 
sary, and the abihty to beat up a sharp bend with a short 
leg like that shown in the reproduced photographs proves in 

such a case of real value. 
The procedure is sim- 
ple and a neat and effec- 
tive job may be made 
with a little practice. 
After the piece of pipe 
is straightened out and 
any dents removed with 
the drift plug and 
dresser as described in previous chapters, a hole is drilled in 
one side of the pipe about 4 in. from one end. This hole should 
be made with the tap borer and should be about % in. in 
diameter. The illustration in Fig. 22 shows this being 
done. 

Then a V-shaped notch is cut to the end of the pipe, the 
mouth of the V comprising about one-quarter of the circum- 
ference, as is shown in Fig. 24. The notch may be cut easily 
with the snips or with a 
saw, as is shown in Fig. 

23, and then the corners 
should be rasped off un- 
til the shape of the V is 
like that shown in Fig. 

24. When this has been 
done, the bending pin is 
used to raise up the nar- 
row end of the V, which 
will, when finished, form the throat of the bend, and this should 
be done lightly and as shown in Fig. 25, so as to bring up a 
piece about 1 in. long some 3 or 4 deg. only. 




Fig. 24, Corners of the Notch Rounded 
Off with Rasp Previous to Setting 
Up Bend 



BEATING UP A SHORT HEEL BEND 



33 




Fig. 25. Setting Up the Throat of the 
Bend by Means of the Steel Bend- 
ing Pin 



Then the heel of the pipe is dressed inward with the flat 
dresser as shown in Fig. 26, and this is dressed only to an 
amount corresponding with the amount raised with the bend- 
ing pin in the throat. 

The bending pm is 
again taken and the 
throat raised a little 
farther, the artisan 
reaching in as before 
so as to raise as much 
as possible and tak- 
ing care to do so as 
equally as possible and 
so as to avoid thinning the lead as the work proceeds. 

If this is done carefully the throat can be brought up 
so that the shape will be practically correct without any 
apparent thinning of the metal. The heel is to be brought 
up at approximately the same rate as the throat, and the 
sides must also be dressed up as fast as is seen to be nec- 
essary to maintain the desired shape. 

There will be a ten- 
dency to widen out the 
diameter as the bend 
progresses and this 
should be corrected by 
careful dressing. The 
shape of the heel must 
also be attended to, else 
when the throat is raised 
to a right angle with the 
pipe the cross-section from throat to heel will be too wide. It 
will be noticed on close examination of the illustration in Fig. 
26 that the width of the short side of the bend is excessive 




Fig. 26. Dressing Down the Heel to 
Secure the Desired Shape. Note 
the "Width of Short Side 



34 LEAD WORKING 

and the heel is being dressed into the correct shape so that 
this diameter will be reduced. 

In the illustration in Fig. 27 the shape of the lead on the 
completion of the bend may be observed. It will be seen that 
the lead at the heel has been raised more than that at the 
throat. This is as it should be, as no more than is absolutely 
necessary should be driven up with the bending pin owing to 
the thinning tendency it has, and the part that is higher at 
the heel is easily rasped down to the correct height, as is 
shown being done in Fig. 27. 

Some mechanics prefer to hold the end of a mallet or some 

round-nosed tool inside 
the heel of the bend 
while dressing it to 
shape, as it offers a 
isort of guide to the 
correct shape and pre- 
vents the lead becoming 

Fig. 27. Rasping Off Excess at Heel of ^^^ thick m parts. 
Bend After Proper Diameter Has This, however, is op- 
Been Attained . t i 

tional, as a little prac- 
tice will give facility in dressing the lead so that this will be 
found easy to avoid. 

When a bend of this nature is made so as to connect with a 
closet bend the branch joint will be a little difficult to wipe 
owing to the shortness of the piece on which the joint is made. 
It is a good plan in such a case to use a narrow stick shaped 
like a paddle, around which a piece of ticking or moleskin 
has been wound, and to wipe the place at the throat of the 
vent bend with this. Such a wiping stick is a convenient tool 
to carry for many joints and in one of this nature especially 
is really indispensable. 

The same thing apphes when a sharp bend is desired for 




BEATING UP A SHORT flEEL BEND 35 

the outM from a drum trap placed between the floor joists 
where other pipes have also to be run. In that case space is 
valuable, and % in. saved on the outlet bend is often very 
desirable, although the difficulty of wiping the joint is added 
to considerably unless a wiping stick such as that described 
forms part of the plumber's kit. 



Chapter V 
BENDING PIPE BY USE OF SAND 




Fig. 28. Dr.rviXG Bobbin Into Pipe. 
First Step in Removing Dents 



When a lead pipe of comparatively light weight as regards 
the thickness of its walls and of a diameter large in propor- 
tion to that thickness is bent, the result is a collapse of the 
walls and what is termed by plumbers a "kink" at the throat 
or small radius of the bend. It is therefore found necessary, 

when bending pipes of 
the weight and size used 
for waste or vent pipes 
to plumbing fixtures, to 
fill them with some in- 
compressible material 
which will support the 
walls but which will be 
flexible enough to allow 
of the bend being made. 
This matter has been the subject of a good deal of experi- 
menting and among the schemes tried have been that of filling 
the pipe by water, by sand, by rosin and other substances. 
While it would seem that water would make an ideal support 
for the pipe when properly closed it does not seem that any 
great success has been attained with it. Rosin is all right 
for small pipes of brass and such materials, but has so 
many disadvantages that it is not worth considering for the 
bending of lead pipes. A good grade of sand, however, 
is found to give very satisfactory results. It is easy to 
obtain on almost any building and needs only to be dried 
to be ready for use. It is practically incompressible, 
packs tightly and yet the grains move over each other 
freely enough to allow of the pipe being bent without much 

36 



BENDING PIPE BY USE OF SAND 



37 




Fig. 29. Dkivixg the Bobbin Through 
THE Pipe with Hammer axd Rod 



trouble. Therefore it is found in common use by plumbers 
wherever lead pipe is used and for many kinds of bend is 
superior to any mechanical support such as a bending spring 
or rubber pipe bender. 
These appliances are a 
later development and 
their use Avill be de- 
scribed in another chap- 
ter of this book. 

The best sand for pipe 
bending is the sharp and 
evenly graded sand 
found on river banks. 
There is, as a rule, very little earth or other matter mixed with 
it, as it has been washed out and the sand is hard and will pack 
well in the pipe. For the purpose intended it should be 
screened to remove any pebbles, and a good mesh to use for 
this is a piece of the ordinary netting used for fly screens. 
Before filling a pipe with it, the sand should be thoroughly 
dried. In any case it is well to fill the pipe when the sand is 

hot, as the bend will 
then be made much 
easier, but the purpose 
of the drying is to re- 
move all traces of moist- 
ure so that the sand will 
pack to a perfectly 
solid mass. If this is 
not done there will be 
a danger when making 
a sharp bend of the pipe becoming contracted at the throat, 
owing to the sand being compressed most at that point and 
having room in the pipe to be pushed away from the throat. 




Fig. 30. Closing the Exd of Pipe to 
Retain Sand While Bending It 



38 



LEAD WORKING 




Fig. 



31, Filling the Pipe with 

Heated Over the Fiee-pot 



Sand 



The first illustration, Fig. 28, of the bending operation 
shows the dressing up of the pipe. A drift plug of the same 
diameter as the inside of the pipe is just being inserted and 

the next illustration, 
Fig. 29, shows it being 
driven through the piece 
by means of a short 
piece of broom handle. 
When all dents have 
been removed and kinks 
or uneven places dressed 
the end is closed up by 
the dresser as shown in 
in Fig. SO. The pipe is now ready for filling with sand and 
the next illustration. Fig. 31, shows the hot sand being re- 
moved from the tray in which it has been warmed and poured 
into the pipe through a rough funnel made out of a piece of 
scrap tin. 

As the sand is poured in the pipe is kept in motion to shake 
it down and when no more apparently can be put into it the 
dresser is taken and the 
sides of the pipe lightly 
tapped as in Fig. 32. 
This will cause the sand 
to settle down solidly 
and a little more sand 
can be added and the 
dressing repeated until 
it is certain that the 
limit has been reached. 
A wad of paper should then be inserted on the top of the 
sand and the end dressed down as the other was. This is 
«hown in Fig. 33. If preferred a sand plug can be used for 




Fig. 32. Dbbssing tphb Pipe to SBTriiE 

THE Sand Down Solidly 



BENDING PIPE BY USE OF SAND 



39 




Fig. 33. Closing the End of the Pipe 

After Filling with Hot Sand 



this purpose. This is simply a tapered plug which drives the 
sand down and which can be fastened so as to keep the end 
tightly closed against the exit of the sand when the pipe is 
being bent to shape. 

In commencing to 
bend the pipe it is well 
to have on the bench a 
piece of canvas to pre- 
vent damage to the back 
of the pipe when the 
weight of the body is 
put on it. The pipe 
should also be marked 
with chalk at the point where the bend is desired and if a 
particular angle is desired this should be struck out on the 
bench or on the floor. It is a good plan in drawing out such 
an angle to draw two lines at a distance apart equal to the 
outside diameter of the pipe. If this is done it is easy to 
make the bend so that it will be within the lines as far as 
possible to the point of bending and a better appearing bend 

will thus be obtained. 

So that too much 
strain will not be put on 
any one part of the lead 
it is best to bend the 
pipe by placing the 
hand holding against 
the bending strain first 
on one side of the point 
at which the pipe is to 
be bent and then on the other, as in Fig. 34. If this is 
done the bend will be what is termed an easy one — ^that is, the 
radius will be long — but if it is desired that the angle shall 




Fig. 34. Making the Bend. Note that 

THE Left Hand is Moved from 
Point to Point 



40 



LEAD WORKING 




Fig. 35. 



Squaring the Bend by Pushing- 
Back ON Bench 



be sharp this is easily enough accomplished. The advantage 
of bending the pipe as described is that there is less chance 
of the pipe kinking at the throat, as less strain is put upon 
it by a series of movements and the lead will thicken 

up in the throat and be- 
come thinner on the heel 
more equally if the 
bending point is moved 
as described. 

If a sharp bend is de- 
sired it is advisable to 
carry the first round 
and easy bend past the 
angle at which the bend is to stop. The pipe is then held on 
the bench as shown in Fig. 35 and the angle sharpened up by 
bending back on the heel as shown. The same thing is done 
to the other leg and then if the angle in doing so has become 
too obtuse the bend is closed up again, and if still more sharp- 
ness is desired the bending back of the heel is again performed. 
This is a better mode of bending than by simply pulling the 
pipe 'sharply over the 
knee as the heel and the 
throat will be of more 
even thickness and there 
will be less chance of the 
pipe giving out under 
the strain of expansion 
or contraction. When 
the correct angle has 
been obtained the sides 
should be dressed as shown in Fig. 36. It will be found that 
the lead will bulge out at the sides and in dressing this it is 
advisable to use a diagonal stroke toward the heel. This will 




Tig. 36. Dressing Out Uneven ^..:.i. 
THE Sides and Theoat of Bend 



BENDING PIPE BY USE OF SAND 41 

in some measure drive the thickness of the lead toward the 
heel, where it is most required. The bend is then ready to 
be cut and the sand removed. This is quickly accomplished 
if the pipe is tapped with the dresser w^hile the open end is held 
over the sand tray. 

Bends may be made with sand up to 3 in. diameter, but in 
sizes larger than S in. the strain on the heel is too severe. It is 
not uncommon to find the lead so seriously thinned at the heel 
on large pipes as to make the placing of the bend in service 
dangerous. In making bends on pipes larger than 2 in. diam- 
eter, therefore, it is advisable to use the methods of bending 
by bobbins or by the use of the dummy already described, as 
these preserve the original thickness. 



Chapter VI 



BENDING PIPE BY USE OF SPRING 




Fig, 37. Straightening the Pipe Befoeb 

INSEETING SpEING FOE BENDING 



There would not seem, at first sight, to be room for 
much lack of skill in the bending of a piece of lead 
pipe by means of a spring, and yet the results that one 
man can show over another are often so obviously superior 
that the process may be classed as one of those that is not 

so easy as it appears. 
In the first place, it 
will not do simply to 
push the spring into the 
pipe and pull the piece 
round in the quickest 
way possible. If this is 
done there will be a 
series of rings showing 
on the heel of the bend, and each of these shows where there 
is a thin spot in the pipe, which may some day give out if 
there is much hot water to be passed through the pipe. It 
must be kept in mind that repeated expansion and contrac- 
tion of lead pipe will develop cracks at weak spots. 

If it is considered that the outside diameter of the circle 
described by the bend is considerably greater than the inside 
one — that is, the heel has a good deal wider radius than the 
throat of the bend — it will be seen that in bending up a piece 
of pipe from the straight the inside or throat is compressed 
but the heel is stretched. When this part of the lead is 
stretched without due care some parts will become thinner 
than others, and hence the rings on the bend. If it is brought 
up slowly and evenly there will be no evidence of this thinning, 

42 



BENDING PIPE BY USE OF SPRING 



43 




Fig. 38. Pushing a Bobbin Into the Pipe 

BY Meaxs of a Beoom Handle 



as the thickness of the lead will be reduced and compressed 
respectively at the same rate. Therefore, a better and more 
shapely bend will be secured with little extra trouble. 

To get good results 
the pipe should first of 
all be straightened out, 
as in Fig. 37, and the 
drift plug passed 
through it as is being 
done in the illustrations, 
Figs. 38 and 39. This 
shows the plug being 
driven through by means of a stick, after w^hich it is often 
possible to dress up the pipe on a piece of iron pipe so 
that a perfectly smooth bore is secured. Then the bend- 
ing spring should be pushed in, turning it in the direc- 
tion in which the spiral is wound meantime. This reduces 
the diameter of the spring and makes it easier to push into 
the pipe. 

Springs are usually wound toward the right and should 

be twisted this way 
both in pushing them 
into the pipe and in re- 
moving them, but oc- 
casionally it will be 
found that a spring has 
been wound toward the 
left, and if turned the 
wrong way a kink will 
probably be formed in the spring besides increasing the dif- 
ficulty of removing it. 

When the spring goes hard it is a good plan to rub it with 
tallow or vaseline, and this is especially desirable when a bend 




L 

Fig. 39. Driving the Bobbin Through 
THE Pipe to Remove Dents Before 
Bending 



44 



LEAD WORKING 




is to be made on a long piece of pipe where it will not be 
possible to get a hold on the spring to remove it. Some pat- 
terns have a nipple attached to the end of the coil, and a piece 

of iron pipe of any 
length may be screwed 
into this for convenience 
of inserting and remov- 
ing the spring in long 
pieces of pipe. 

After the spring is 
into the correct position 

FIG. 40. WARMING THE PART TO BE BENT ^^^^ ^^.^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^^^ 

be noted by measuring the spring so that it is certain that 
the end will be past the point where the bend is to be made) 
the pipe may be heated with a gasolene torch, as is shown 
in Fig. 40, or by holding it over the fire-pot. Care should 
be taken not to overheat the pipe, else the temper of the 
spring will be injured, and kinks will result when it is at- 
tempted to remove it after the bend is made. It will, how- 
ever, make it possible to make a very much neater bend 
and a very much better bend from the point of equality 
in thickness of the walls 
if the lead is warmed to 
some extent, as the 
metal works much more 
easily and will compress 
and stretch much more 
equally when warm than 
when cold. 

The illustration in 
Fig 40 shows the pipe being warmed with a gasolene torch, 
after which it is easy to bend up the lead if one hand or 
the knee is placed at the point where the bend is to be made, 




Fig. 41. Making the Bend 



BENDING PIPE BY USE OF SPRING 



45 




Bending the Pipe Back to 
Squaee the Bend 



as shown in Fig. 41. This, however, would make the bend 
appear as described; that is, the heel would become too thin 
and therefore the hand should be moved a little to either side 
of the mark so that the 
bend will have a com- 
paratively wide radius 
and w^ i 1 1 be when 
brought up to the de- 
sired angle what is 
termed an easy bend. 

If it is desired to 
sharpen the angle, it is 
then put down on the bench, as in Fig. 42, when the heel is 
bent back again. 

It will be seen that in the picture the bend has been brought 
a little by the 90 deg., to which the pipe was to be bent, and 
this was done purposely so that the heel could be bent back- 
ward, as described, to gain a sharper angle at the throat. 
Then the back of the pipe on the other leg of the bend is 
bent in the same fashion. This is being done in Fig. 43, 
and if the angle is still too easy the bend must be closed up 

and these operations re- 
peated. It should be 
emphasized, however, 
that this should be done 
slowly, as the sharper 
the turn made the more 
the chance of thinning 
the pipe unduly will be 
increased. 

When satisfied with the shape of the bend it should be 
dressed on the sides, as shown in Fig. 45, so as to remove the 
bulges which show there. If it is desired to secure a fine finish 




Fig. 43. Bending the Heel Back to 
Get a Sharper Bexd 



46 



LEAD WORKING 




Pig. 44. Removing the Speing 



the pipe should be scoured with sand and water or a wire 
cloth and finished with some fine emery and oil. The illus- 
tration in Fig. 4<4< shows how the bending spring is twisted 

to reduce its diameter 

t ^.j^^m^m when removing it. 

Other types of bend- 
i n g appliances are 
made of solid rubber. 
These should be well 
coated with graphite or 
vaseline before insert- 
ing them and the pipe 
should never be heated when they are being used. Although 
they have the advantage of being perfectly smooth and so 
leave no marks on the pipe bent by them, this style of bender 
sometimes is found to be too easily compressed, and in that 
case a sharp bend made with them will appear to be throttled. 
The use of bending springs is generally confined to pipes 
from 1 in. to 2 in. diameter, and the largest of these sizes 
might often with advantage be bent with sand unless the 
bends to be made are easy. 

On the smaller sizes 
there is no question 
about their utility, and 
the only objection on 
the sizes mentioned is 
that of thinning the 
heels unless great care 
is used. It is not un- 
common to find that the 
spring breaks through the lead on a sharp 2-in. bend. This 
is due to rushing the operation and is what is in mind in 
recommending sand for this size. 




Fig. 45. Deessi:^g the Sides of the 
Bend to Deaav Thickness to Heel 



BENDING PIPE BY USE OF SPRING 47 

When springs are not in use they should be kept lying or 
hanging at full length. It is not good for the life of the tool 
to keep it in a tool chest that is too short for it so that it 
will be under tension all the time. If this is done a kink will 
very soon appear at the part where the tension is greatest, 
and when this happens the spring is of little practical use. 
Another common practice is to take a hammer and to drive 
the spring into the pipe that is to be bent. If the pipe is too 
small for the spring or there are dents in it a drift plug 
should be used. This will not only prove quicker but will make 
a material difference to the life of the bending spring. 



Chapter VII 



MAKING KNOT TRAPS ON LEAD PIPE 




Fig. 46. Pilling the Pipe with Sand 



Very few plumbers now make the traps which they place 
under sinks, bath tubs or lavatory basins, although a few 
years ago the practice was common. There are times, how- 
ever, wiien such have to be made or a considerable change in 
the rest of the plumbing work will be necessitated. This 

applies principally to 
replacement work, as 
the sanitary qualities of 
the S and half-S traps 
have been well enough 
demonstrated to make 
their use preferable to 
that of a trap which can 
be made from a piece 
of pipe on the job. A 
knot trap is more likely to lose its seal than either of the 
types referred to and does not clean itself so well. 

The trap may be made through the medium of either sand 
or a bending spring, but probably most men would prefer to 
use sand, as it is rather difficult to pull the spring out of a 
pipe bent in such a manner as is necessary in the making of a 
trap. Besides this it is necessary to bend the pipe on a wide 
radius first if a good shape is to be secured, and as the aver- 
age length of a spring is only some 20 in. this does not leave 
much margin for getting a hold on it to remove it after the 
bend is complete or to bend the pipe sufficiently at the com- 
mencement of the operation without knuckling it at the end of 
the spring. 

When preparing the pipe it is first bent out straight. The 

48 



MAKING KNOT TRAPS ON LEAD PIPE 



49 




Deessing the Pipe 
THE Sand Tightly 



handle of the dresser inserted in the end of the pipe will afford 
a good lever to bend it at the extreme end and after this the 
drift plug should be driven through with a stick and the pipe 
carefully dressed to re- 
move all bulges or dents. 
The bend is then closed 
up at one end and sand 
poured into it, as shown 
in Fig. 46. 

The sand should be 
passed through a screen 
first, and a good mesh 
to use is a piece of the 
ordinary fly screen netting of fine wire. This removes all 
small pebbles that otherwise would keep the sand from pack- 
ing well, and when this has been done and the sand warmed 
throughout so that it is perfectly dry the sand will pack 
solidly and there will be a correspondingly greater chance of 
securing a bend that will not be throttled at any part. 

As the sand fills up the pipe a dresser should be used to tap 

the outside of the pipe 
from top to bottom, as 
shown in Fig. 47, so 
that the sand will be 
kept settling down firm- 
ly, and when it has 
reached to within about 
!4 in. of the top of the 
pipe a wad of paper 
may be inserted and the 
handle of the dresser used to tamp the sand firmly in. Then 
the ends of the pipe can be dressed tightly over the paper and 
the pipe is ready to be bent. 




Fig. 48. Bexding the Pipe to a U Shape 



50 LEAD WORKING 

Instead of the paper wad and the dressing over the ends 
a sand plug is used by many plumbers. This is simply a 
tapered wooden plug wliich is driven into the pipe after the 
sand has been filled into the desired depth and which packs 
the sand home and then holds it firmly by a pin or nail 
driven into a hole in the plug while the bend is being made. 
Whether the knot trap is to be of the pattern known as a 
running trap, a "half-S" or a "full-S" trap, the first bend 
should be made in the form of a siphon, and the radius should 
be wide at first and drawn in at successive bendings. 

The illustration in Fig. 48 shows hovv' the bend is made and 

how the operator moves 
his hand around the 
pipe so as to insure that 
the bend will be brought 
around equally and on 
about the same radius 
at all parts. If it was 
only required that a 

Fig. 49. Closing the Radius of the Bend siphon bend should be 
BY Bending Against the Heel ^^^^^ (^^^J SOj^e traps 

are made in which a branch is wiped into the side of a siphon 
bend to form the outlet at the necessary height from the 
crown to secure a seal) the bend would be closed up by bend- 
ing backward against the heel, as is shown in Fig. 49. By 
alternately bending backward in this fashion and inward with 
the hand held in the throat it is easy to make a siphon bend 
in which the legs may be brought almost close together. 

If a regular knot trap is to be made, however, this is not 
done, as all that is required is that the bend be carried farther 
along and that it be closed up in doing so. This is simply 
effected by bending the pipe gently at a little different 
place each time the weight of the hand is applied. In the 




MAKING KNOT TRAPS ON LEAD PIPE 51 




Fig. 



THE U I^"TO A Knot 



illustration in Fig. 50 the operator is seen bending the pipe 
equally from each side with the weight resting on the heel. 
This is to close up the radius of the trap, and if a full "S" 
trap is to be made all 
that is necessary is that 
this bending motion 
shall be continued from 
that point until the out- 
let and inlet ends are in 
line. Then if the radius 
has been brought down 
sufficiently the trap is 
complete. 

A running trap of course appears the same when a knot 
trap is used as a "full S" does, the only difference being in the 
manner of fitting it. It may also be necessary to make a slight 
offset on the legs to bring the outlet and inlet into align- 
ment, so that it will fit properly into the line of waste pipe. 
If a "half-S" trap is desired the inlet end is bent back as 
shown in Fig. 51. This makes a much neater trap than would 

result from simply stop- 
ping the bend when it 
^^^^mmm had reached the right 

angle to the outlet and 
also permits of the 
radius of the loop being 
brought down to a con- 
siderably less point 
than it would be if it 
was not made as de- 
scribed. After the necessary bending has been completed and 
the shape secured is satisfactory the throat and sides of the 
bend will probably be found to be somewhat out of shape 




Fig. 51. Makin'g ax Offset ox the Inlet 

EXD OF THE TeAP 



5^ LEAD WORKING 

and it is well to dress these up before the sand is removed. 
When this has been done the end is cut oif and the sand 
allowed to run out. 

This is hastened by tapping the pipe with a dresser while 
the end of the pipe is held over the tray. After a clean-out 
screw has been wiped into the heel of the trap it is ready for 
use. The average seal of a knot trap of 1% diameter is about 
6 in., which is rather more than is provided in the drawn 
traps of the ordinary pattern. 



Chapter VIII 
BEATING ROUND CORNERS ON SHEET LEAD 

The use of sheet lead for roofing and interior plumbing 
^\ork, although not so common in this country as in Europe, 
is widespread enough to make it worth while to acquire pro- 
ficiency in handling it. In covering sinks and drain boards 
where acids are to be handled, for instance, it is the only 
material that will give satisfactory service in many instances, 
while as a roofing material for roofs exposed to the fumes 
of sulphur or the vapors rising from die vats and from other 
manufacturing operations it possesses marked superiority 
over any other metal in general use. 

It is largely used in lining acid tanks for chemical works, 
smoke houses for the treatment of woolens, and for the lining 
of condensation troughs where pipe lines are carried under 
floors many architects specify it. In most of the cases in 
which it is used a knowledge of the method of beating up a 
simple corner w^ill be sufficient to enable the fitter to secure a 
satisfactory job where another would have to solder a seam 
and so defeat one of the metal's principal advantages. 

A little more skill is required in the handling of lead on any 
extensive scale in roofing work, but when used only for flash- 
ings a knowledge of the method of working a roll at the con- 
nection of two sheets, how to draw a flashing to suit a circular 
building and the method of beating up inside and outside 
corners on flashings and gutters will be found sufficient. Ex- 
amples of each of these operations will be given and the work- 
man who acquires proficiency in doing this part of the work 
will have little difliculty in handling a more intricate piece of 
lead beating. 

03 



54 



LEAD WORKING 



As the simplest piece of lead beating that has to be per- 
formed is the setting up of an up-stand on a circular piece 
of sheet lead it will be taken as the first example. The use for 
this will often be found in the preparation of a condensation 
tray for a water cooler or for the protection of a ceiling above 
which a storage tank is placed. The procedure is simple and 




Fig. 52. Beating the TJpstand ; Note the Bossing of the 
Sheet at the Bottom 

when the lead has been rolled out on the floor and dressed 
smooth it is only necessary to mark off the diameter of the 
trap and then to make allowance for the height of the up- 
stand when cutting out the piece. 

If a square tray is to be made it will make the beating 
up of the corners easier if they are rounded off and this is 
often desirable as well as possible. 

If a corner of this description is to be beaten up, it is 
simply marked off at the correct size and then the mark 
is followed with the corner of a dresser and light blows 
applied with a hammer. This provides an easy starting 
place for the up-stand and then by dressing the back of 



BEATING ROUND CORNERS ON SHEET LEAD 55 

the lead from the mark to the outside edge the up-stand is 
soon brought up some distance from the horizontal. 

Fig. 52 shows the up-stand being dressed up as described. 
When it has been brought up some 20 deg. or so it is well to 
boss up the bottom of the piece that will form the corner of 
the tray in the manner indicated in the illustration. 




ibMitti 






Fig. 53. 



FixiSHixG THE Upstand ; Dressing to Take Out 
Maeks Made by the Tools 



This should be done with the round mallet and the purpose 
of doing it is not only to stiffen the corner and to maintain 
the correct shape while the up-stand is being beaten up but 
to enable the up-stand to be brought to a true 90-deg. angle 
with the bottom and to be dressed down flat and true when 
the tray is put into position. 

In Fig. 53 the round side of a dresser is being held inside 
the up-stand while the lead is being dressed up. This is done 
to prevent the lead from becoming buckled and so that the 
thickness will be maintained about the same at all points. If 
it is attempted to rush the work and to force up any one part 
quicker than the other there will be a strong possibility that a 



56 LEAD WORKING 

wrinkle will be formed that will not be easily taken out again. 
Holding the round dresser or bossing stick inside the comer 
while beating the back side aids considerably in producing a 
smooth and neat job. 

The tools used in beating this corner are shown in the 
views. It will be noted that a V-shaped dresser is among 
them. The principal use for this tool is to set up an angle 
to a sharp turn after it has been partially dressed to shape 
and it is also useful in marking the lead at the point of 
bending before attempting to set the lead up. The use of 
the V-shaped dresser will be shown in the next example. 

When setting up an up-stand on a circular piece of sheet 
lead such as is sometimes necessary when lining a cylindrical 
closed tank with sheet lead to avoid seams in the angles of 
the tank, the end or bottom of the lead should be dished so 
that it will fit tightly when the dished part has been dressed 
back into its place in the end of the cylinder. 

When it is necessary to beat sheet lead down over a comer 
such as the end of a sink drip board the greatest care should 
be taken, as if the corner of the wooden board is sharp a tear 
will probably result unless precaution is taken to avoid it. 
This is best done by holding the weight up with the hand until 
the lead has been dressed down some distance and then by 
holding a dresser behind the lead until the part that laps over 
has been brought down almost as far as it will be required to 
come. When the lead has been brought down to, say, three- 
quarters of the turnover required it will be safe to dress back 
on it without easing the weight, as then the strain will not be 
put upon the lead at the immediate angle of the board to such 
an extent. 

When covering a drain board, it is always well to round 
off the corners, if possible, for the lead works easier, has a\, 
better appearance and gives better service. 



BEATING ROUND CORNERS ON SHEET LEAD 57 

If a raised bead is desired along the front of the drain 
board, it will be necessary to first set up a round corner on 
the sheet lead to the amount of the lap required to cover the 
bead and the amount it is to project below it and then to 
work it back over the bead. 

The second part of the operation is the more difficult owing 
to the pulling strain being liable to draw the lead away from 
its correct position behind the bead. In this case a dresser 
should be held In the angle at the back of the bead while the 
lap is being dressed over the front, and greater care should 
then be exercised to prevent the lead from cutting, since it 
is necessary to beat it down with the strain on the corner of 
the bead. As, however, it is rarely necessary to beat the lead 
over any farther than 2 in. this is comparatively unimportant. 

Another time when a round corner or a circular up-stand is 
required to be beaten up on sheet lead is in the covering of 
final posts or on ornamental flashings on towers and other 
architectural features of buildings. It need only be repeated 
that when lead is being beaten over a stone or wooden cornice 
or other part of a building care should be taken to keep the 
weight from the piece to avoid cutting. 

The use of lead flashings on stone buildings patterned after 
early styles of architecture seems to be on the increase and this 
point may well be borne in mind. 



Chapter IX 

BEATING EXTERNAL ANGLES ON SHEET LEAD 

When commencing to set up a piece of lead to a height 
of some inches on an external angle, the procedure is sim- 
ilar to that followed for a round corner, so far as laying 
out the sheet of lead goes. In Fig. 54 a piece of lead cut 
so that an external and an internal angle will be set up is 

^ show^n. This is such a 




piece of lead as would 
be used were a box gut- 
ter being lined and a 
piece were required to 
make an angle in the 
gutter. It will be seen 

from the illustration 
Fig. 54. Lead Cut and Maeked foe the i i j • • i 

Beating Up of Inteenal and Exteenal that the lead IS simply 
ANGLES AS IN A CoENicE GuTTEE marked at thc point at 

which it is to be bent, and that the sharpness of the bend 
made at the mark is increased by application of the V-shaped 
dresser before mentioned and in the manner indicated in 
Fig. 55, where the mallet is used as a hammer, to prevent 
damage to the back of the dresser. An iron tool would soon 
make it rough and unfit for use. 

When that has been done, the round-pointed mallet is taken 
and the angle is dished up a little, as shown in Fig. 56, to 
stiffen it while the corner is being beaten up. The mark- 
ing of the lead with the dresser on the chalk lines should 
be done before this bossing is made. After the corner is 
dished with the mallet, it will be seen, in Fig. 56, that when 
the lead has been bent along each mark a wide pig ear is 
formed at the corner. 

58 



EXTERNAL ANGLES ON SHEET LEAD 



59 





Fig. 55. 



Peeliminaky Marking at Bend- 
ing Points 



This pig ear should not be brought in very close, as it 
is desirable to keep the corner as round as possible during 
the first part of the operation. When the lead has been 
dished and bent, as de- 
scribed, the next step is 
to work up the lead at 
the angle, and this is 
done by using the round 
dresser, as shown in Fig. 
57. Here the lead is 
held up from the bench 
and the dresser is ap- 
plied lightly, starting at the marks made by the "V" dresser 
and beating the lead so that the corner is started away from 
the point at which the lines meet. The first few strokes of 
the dresser should be made close to the angle. 

After the corner has been started, the mallet may be held 
in the inside, as shown in Fig. 58, and the beating up con- 
tinued. The direction of the stroke of the dresser should be 
slightly upward, so as to draw the thickness of the lead up 
to the top. If this is not done, the thickness will be excessive 

_ ^t the angle and small 
- wrinkles will form which 
are difficult to remove. 
When beating the lead 
/ I up, it should not be at- 

f/B iriBh^k^- -^^^ tempted to make the 

Ig^^^K ^^^ I corner square until the 

Fig. 56. Bossing Up the Lead at the Sill required height of up- 
OE Flat of the Angle stand has been obtained. 

The appearance of the angle when the upstand has been 
brought to the required height is seen in Fig. 59. It will 
be noticed that the lead has been beaten up until the excess 




60 



LEAD WORKING 




Fig. 5 1 



Beating the Upstand with 
Round Dressei: 



lead has formed a long tail at the corner. This is to be 
trimmed off and then, by holding one dresser inside the angle 
and beating the lead with another, the corner may be squared 
up as sharp as is de- 
sired. When this has 
been done the dished 
part on the bottom may 
be dressed down smooth. 
This will tend to 
straighten up the up- 
stand part to some ex- 
tent. Therefore, it is 
not necessary to bring the upstand and the corner quite to 
the 90-deg. angle, as the dressing back of the dished part 
may be counted upon to gain a few degrees. 

When dressing this raised part down, it is easy to make 
a neat job if the dresser is held flat on the lead and a mal- 
let is used to apply the stroke. In any case, the sharp 
corner of the tool should not be poked into the corner of 
the upstand unnecessarily, as it is very easy to make a thin 

part that will in time 
cause a leakage. Sheet 
lead may be beaten up, 
as described, to a height 
of 10 or 12 in., but the 
difficulty increases with 
the height. 

T. i-o TT , ^s the heicrht in- 

FiG. 58. Using the Mallet to Being the 

Lead Up to Right Angles with the creases, the tendency to 

BOTTOM or THE GUTTEB ^J^-^J^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^j^ .^^ 

creases. To mitigate this as much as possible, little folds 
should be taken in the lead as close to the angles as pos- 
sible, and then these should be dressed flat with a motion of 




EXTERNAL ANGLES ON SHEET LEAD 61 




Fig. 



AppeafvAxci: of the Angle when 
Beaten Up 



the dresser which will drive the fold away from the angle. 
This reduces the thickness a little each time it is done, and 
a skilful lead worker will be able to maintain the same thick- 
ness, or very nearly the . , 

same, throughout by 
looking after this point. 
Instead of setting an 
angle up, as described, 
there will arise occa- 
sions when it is neces- 
sary to dress the lead 
down ; for instance, in 
the covering of a drip board, when it might be desired to 
turn the lead over the angle of the board. In all cases 
where lead is dressed over an angular surface, the weight 
of the sheet should be relieved. That is, when beating the 
lead down, the sheet should be held slightly clear of the 
angle. If this is not done, there will be a tendency to cut 
the lead over the corner. 

As in beating the corner up, the work should be kept round 

as long as possible, and 
the round dresser is the 
best tool to use for the 
work in hand. The flat 
dresser should only be 
used when the beating 
has progressed far 
enough to warrant 
squaring it up for a 
finish. Then the sheet may be allowed to lie on the wood 
or stone which is being covered, as there will not be so 
great danger of cutting the lead when this stage has been 
reached. 




Fig. 60. 



Using Flat Deessees to Being 
Upstand Squaee 



Chapter X 




BEATING INTERNAL ANGLES ON SHEET LEAD 

It is much harder to beat up an inside corner on sheet 
lead than it is to beat up an outside one to the same height. 
The reason for this is that every stroke made by the dresser 
in setting up the lead tends to make it thinner at the angle, 
and if the greatest care is not exercised a tear will result. 

It is here where the 

^^^ ' skill of the lead worker 

is shown, as the prac- 
tised man is able to make 
an internal angle with 
an upstand of five or 
six inches and to main- 
tain the thickness of the 
lead almost as good as 
when it was commenced. 
The importance of cutting the lead correctly is to be 
remembered in this respect. In the illustration on page 58, 
showing the shape of the piece of lead before setting up 
either side for the working of the corners, it was noted that 
the piece had not been cut to an angle of 90 deg. at the inside, 
but that a rounded piece had been left at the extreme inside 
angle. This provides a safe allowance for "drawing" the 
lead to maintain the thickness and to reduce the chance of 
its tearing. 

The first thing to do in setting up the lead for the in- 
ternal angle is to mark off the piece with the V-shaped 
dresser, as was done for the outside angle. This is being 
done with the V dresser and mallet used as a hammer in the 

62 



Fig. 61. 



Marking the Lead with 
Dkessek 



INTERNAL ANGLES ON SHEET LEAD 



63 




Fig. 



62. UsixG RouxD Deessee to Set 
Lead Up Part Wat at the Angle 
After Marking with V Dresser 



illustration in Fig. 61. Care must be taken not to make the 
marks too deep. If the piece is marked off sharply and yet 
lightly, the lead will turn up easily to the angle and then, 
with the aid of the round dresser or bossing stick, the piece 
may be roughly beaten 
into shape. When it 
has been brought up to 
approximately the shape 
seen in Fig. 62 by care- 
ful dressing of the up- 
stand in the direction 
of the corner, the flat 
dresser should be taken 
and held inside the up- 
stand, as seen in Fig. 63. Then a sKght bulge is formed on 
the upstand, as seen in that illustration, and if the dresser 
is used with a stroke tending toward the corner the lead will 
be driven inward without materially reducing the thickness. 
It will slightly reduce the height of the upstand at the ex- 
treme angle, but if sufficient lead has been left at that point 
in cutting out the piece there will be enough so that the 

upstand can be trimmed 
off" to a true line when 
the beating has been far 
enough advanced. 

By repeated bulging 
of the lead on each side 
of the corner and dress- 
ing toward the angle, as 
indicated, the upstand 
will rapidly be brought 
to the desired shape. The appearance of the lead as it ap- 
proaches completion is seen in Fig. 61?. At this stage it is 




Fig. 63. Drawing Thickness of Lead 
Toward Corner of Internal Angle by 
Means of Round and Flat Dressers 



64 



LEAD WORKING 




Fig. 64. 



Using Round Deesser in Com- 
pleting TJPSTAND 



not necessary to use the flat dresser to beat against, and if 
the hand is held behind the lead when it is being beaten 
further in and care is taken to proceed with light strokes, 
an angle with only a slight round to it will be secured 

without any evidence of 
tearing or serious thin- 
ning of the lead. 

It should not be at- 
tempted to square the 
corner up until it has 
been brought even a 
little beyond the 90-deg. 
point. When it has been 
brought there, the flat 
dresser is held inside again and a similar one is used to dress 
the corner up until the angle has been properly squared. 
Then the piece should be trimmed off* and the sides dressed 
up smoothly. 

When dressing a corner down over a block, instead of up, 
as in this case, it is essential that it be done so that tearing 
will not result. To avoid this, it is well to slightly raise the 
lead from the wood or 
stone over which it is 
being dressed and then 
to dress it in the direc- 
tion of the corner, as de- 
scribed above. This will 
keep the thickness of the 
lead about the same 
throughout, and as in 
the piece just described 
the corner should be kept round until it has been brought 
down to the desired angle. This is the most difficult operr.- 




FiG. 65. 



Squaring the Angle with Two 
Flat Dressers 



INTERNAL ANGLES ON SHEET LEAD 65 

tion in lead working and should be done with the greatest 
care. 

Lead should never be dressed with other than wooden tools 
owing to its softness and liability to tear when a sharp 
dent has been put in it. Square corners should always be 
avoided for the same reason, and the leaving of a piece in 
the angle when cutting out a part to adtnit of an internal 
corner being beaten up or down is always necessary. It 
should also be remembered that the best speed is made when 
the work is gone about deliberately. If it is attempted to 
rush the operation, it will probably end in failure. 



Chapter XI 



BEATING UP HOLLOW FLASHING ROLLS 



It has already been mentioned, and should be always rec- 
ognized by roofers, that it is neither necessary nor desir- 
able to use solder in joining two pieces of sheet lead on 
roofing. There may be cases when soldering would serve, 
but the proper method in every instance is to provide expan- 
sion joints. 

The metal is peculiarly liable to damage when bound in 
any way. Expansion of the metal through heat will cause it 

to buckle and eventually 
develop cracks if room 
is not given it in which 
to move, and when it is 
prevented from con- 
tracting through being 
soldered to another sheet 
the seam will almost cer- 
tainly break. 

When two flat sheets 
are to be joined to- 
gether, as is often the case in apron or cap flashings, the 
best way to do it is by making a hollow roll. This is iden- 
tical with the standing lock seam used in tin roofing, but is 
made much more loosely, and instead of being dressed over 
tightly on the second turn, it is turned over in the shape 
of a roll. It is first of all necessary to beat up an outside 
corner on each sheet to the height of about three inches 
on one sheet and about three and a half inches on the other. 
The extra half -inch is to allow of turning over the part 
to form a lock on the roll. 

66 




Fig. 66. Turning the Upstand to Make 
THE Welt or Lock in the First Steps 
OF Forming a Hollow Roll 



BEATING UP HOLLOW FLASHING ROLLS 67 




When the two sheets have been laid m position, this lap 
is turned over by means of the dresser, as shown in Fig. 66. 
By holding one dresser against the upstand and dressing 
against it with another 
the two edges are beaten 
in so as to secure a close- 
fitting lock and then the 
roll is formed. This is 
done by dressing it over 
a little at a time, com- 
mencing at the top edge 
of the upstand and beat- 
in o* the lead over until ^^^- ^'^' Deessing the roll Into Shape 
it forms a hollow arch, as seen in Figs. 6T and 68. This 
is easily accomplished along the body of the seam, but where 
it joins the back upstand at the corner, which has been beaten 
up, more work is necessary. 

In some cases it is best to beat up the corner so that 
the upstand, which is to be part of the roll, will form a 

return at the back. If 
the back upstand is very 
high, this course is nec- 
essary, but if it is only 
a few inches high, and 
is to be covered with a 
cap flashing, then it is 
only necessary to beat 
up an ordinary corner, 
as described. 

When the roll has 
been formed as far as possible with the aid of the dressers, 
and the part at the back upstand is to be brought down, 
the round mallet should be used. The method of using it is 




Fig. 68. Working Down the Roll at the 
Back Upstand so that No Watee Can 
Leak Thbough the Junction 



68 



LEAD WORKING 



seen in Fig. 68, and the thing to be desired is to return the 
roll by stretching the lead at the junction of roll and up- 
stand as much as possible. It is somewhat hard to describe 

the exact method of 
beating this part down. 
The blows should be 
struck in a direction 
toward the back and 
yet tending toward the 
floor or sill of the flash- 
ing. To maintain the 
correct shape of the 
roll, the dresser should 
be used alternately with 
being done in Fig. 




Fig. 69. Using the Dees see to Make a 
Sharp Finish at Upstand or Riser, 
Where Hollow Roll Joins It 



as IS 
lead and struck with a 



the mallet, and it should be applied 
69 ; that is, it should be held on the 
hammer or, preferably, with the mallet. 

When it has been brought down to its approximate shape 
at the back, the roll should be straightened up by holding 
the dresser on the roll p 
lengthwise and then 
striking it as before. 
This is shown in Fig. 
70. \ 

If the flashing is one | 
that is a simple apron, i 
and that is to lie flat on 
a slate or other roof, the 
end of the roll seam 
would then be closed by 
dressing it in by the same method as a pipe end would 
be closed. If, however, it is necessary to turn a part 
of the flashing down, as would be the case were a cor- 




FiG. 70. Dressing the Roll Close Apteb 
Back is Finished so that Its Lower 
Edge Will Come Close to Roof 



BEATING UP HOLLOW FLASHING ROLLS 69 



nice 

thing 

the 



to be covered with lead, for instance, the 
to do would be to fix the hollow roll so 
turnover would not cause it to collapse. 

This is effected 



next 
that 




Fig. 71. Piece of Sheet Lead Inserted 
IN Roll to Stiffen It Where It is 
TO KE Bent Over Front Edge 



IS eltected bj 
taking a piece of sheet 
lead and rolling: it 
tightly to a size that 
will just fit inside the 
roll. The piece that is 
seen placed in the end 
of the roll in Fig. 71 
was intentionally a loose 
fit, so that it would 
show ^up better in the 
photograph. The closer fitting that is made the better as 
the roll will turn over better and with less work. All that 
is necessary after this, roll has been put in is to dress the 
part carefully over as far as is required. It is, of course, 
necessary that the piece should be long enough to project 
beyond the point at 
which the turnover is 
made. 

The action of bend- 
ing the lead will cause 
the roll to open, and it 
is necessary to dress in 
the side from time to 
time as the piece is be- 
ing bent. This is being 
done in the illustration 
in Fig. 72, and the finished roll with return is seen in Fig. 73. 
In laying a gutter with sheet lead, it is desirable that the 
pieces should be comparatively short, and when it is neces- 




Fig. 72. 



Dressing the Roll Ovee the 
Dkip at Front 



70 



LEAD WORKING 



sarj to lay more than one piece the gutter is laid in two 
levels and the second piece would be turned over in this 
manner. The cornice around a ventilator or ornamental 
turret on a building would also require such a seam if laid 
in lead, not only to secure a joint when the material was in 
such an amount as to require more than one strip from a 
sheet, but also to allow for movement by the lead expand- 
ing and contracting. 

Lead is sometimes laid in a similar manner to the batten 

roll method of laying tin roofing, excepting that no cap 

- - — . is necessary. In such a 

case the lead on one 
sheet would be beaten 
over the roll to form a 
cap in itself. This is 
not likely to be required 
in this country, how- 
ever, as the hollow roll 
is superior for work 
such as flashings, and 
the conditions which 
have to be met in American building construction are such 
as to prohibit the use of lead to such a great extent as that 
of copper. Therefore, flashings, gutters and ornamental 
work are all that are likely to be met with in the work 
of the average plumber and the hollow roll is best for these. 




Fig. 73. Appeaeaxce of a Finished Roll, 
Showing Work at Upstand axd Deip 
Edge 



Chapter XII 



STRETCHING AND DRAWING LEAD FLASHINGS 




Fig. 



Bendixg Lead Peeliminaky to 
Deawixg Into Shape 



One of the best examples of the utility of sheet lead for 
flashings is that where it is necessary to fit a flashing around 
a circular window, ventilator or tower. In such a case the 
use of copper or other metal of a hard nature necessitates 
a considerable amount of cutting and fitting and also a num- 
ber of soldered joints. 

When lead is used, 
the number of pieces 
can not only be reduced 
to the minimum, but the 
joints may be made in 
such a manner as to ob- 
viate the necessity of 
soldering, with the con- 
sequent risk of leakage should they give out by the strains 
of expansion and contraction. The flashings also will fit 
closer and will be less likely to admit snow when a heavy 
wind is blowing. 

To beat the lead around to fit the circular shape of the 
part, however, requires a certain amount of skill and knowl- 
edge of the art of handling lead. It is necessary, in order 
to secure an upstand on the flashing or gutter, or whatever 
the part may be when a section of the lead is to lie flat on 
the roof, that certain parts of the metal must be stretched 
while others must be dra^Ti in. 

This must be done in such a manner that the stretching 
will not lower the resistance to weather or wear and tear of 
the lead, and it must also be done in such a manner that 

71 



72 



LEAD WORKING 




Fig. 75. 



Beating the Lead at the Bend- 
ing Point 



wrinkles are not formed, which would not only have a bad 

appearance, but would form the beginning of a future crack. 

It is not possible, without going into the subject at great 

length, to show all of the 
possibilities of stretch- 
ing and beating sheet 
lead to fit parts of build- 
ing construction that 
can be done, but a simple 
example, which will en- 
able any one to form an 
idea as to the procedure, 
may be given. That is, the preparation of a lead flashing 
for the side of a roof of bell shape, such as is often seen on 
octagonal or round towers on churches and buildings of an 
ornamental character. 

This is selected so as to show how the part may be stretched 
on one side and compressed on the other, and in preparing 
the example the operation was not carried further than was 
necessary to show the results of the beating. By continu- 
ing the operations, the 
offset may be carried 
until it reaches an angle 
of 90 deg., if necessary. 
In the illustration in 
Fig. 74 a piece of lead 
flashing with an upstand 
of 5 in. is being bent 
to secure the desired 
shape of the part that 
is to lie on the roof. In doing this, the upstand must be 
bent forward, when the flat part will bend easily to whatever 
shape is desired. Then the sheet is laid down on the bench. 




Fig. 76. Holding Work Clbae of Bench 
While Dressing, so that the PEOrER 
Shape May be Maintained 



STRETCHING AND DRAWING FLASHINGS 




Fig. 77. Bending Lead Pkeliminaky TO 
CoMPEESsiNG It by Dkessing 



as shown in Fig, 75, and the outer edge of this upstand 
is dressed down so as to stiffen the upstand and to tend 
to make it retain the shape that has been given the flat 
part of the flashing. 
After dressing the 
edge, the rest of the 
upstand should be 
dressed toward the di- 
rection of the end of 
the sheet, and by do- 
ing this very gently 
at first before the part 
has been dressed back smooth again it will be noticed 
that the circular shape that is desired is beginning to 
appear. 

The bending of the upstand forward again and a repeti- 
tion of the bending of the flat part is now necessary. Then 
the edge is again dressed down and the flat part treated 
as before. By repeating this process often enough, the flash- 
ing may be brought round to whatever shape is necessary, 

although a little of the 
height of the upstand 
will be lost in doing so. 
In Fig. 76 the part 
is being dressed up while 
held clear of the bench. 
It is well to do this be- 
tween each bend so that 
the correct line of the 
part set up on the wall will be maintained. If this is 
not done, there will be a liability to twist shown, and 
in getting it back a part of the curve already gained will 
be lost. 




Fig. 78. Dressing Outer Edge of Flash 
ING TO Secure Correct Shape 



74 LEAD WORKING 

The bending of the upstand in the other direction is easier 
to accomplish. In this case, instead of having to stretch 
the lead at the part where the bend is made it is compressed. 

This is done as shown in Fig. 77. It will be seen that 
as the flat part is bent upward the upstand buckles. When 
it has been drawn up as far as is thought desirable for the 
first part of the process, the outer edge of the bulged part 
is dressed in, as shown in Fig. 78. 

Instead of dressing on the flat surface of the lead after 
the edge is first turned down, it is necessary to dress inward 
to the break of the flashing from the edge, dressing from 
each end of the bulged part toward a central point at the 
break line of the upstand. 

By this means the lead is thickened at this point and the 
upstand is enabled to retain its shape. It will be necessary 
to repeat the operation a few times before any visible differ- 
ence is made, but it is possible, by proper handling, to bring 
the bend round to a considerable angle and the upstand 
does not suffer as if it had been in the opposite direction. 

The art of bending flashings in this fashion is useful in 
cases where flashings are to be fitted around a circular stone 
tower where it passes through a slate roof, as when copper 
flashing is used it is almost always necessary to use it in short 
pieces, and the result is not nearly so satisfactory in wear 
or in appearance as if a single sheet of lead bent to suit 
is used. There is no difficulty in fitting cap flashing in such 
a case, and it is comparatively easy to bend the lead to the 
long radius that is required on most towers. A cornice on 
a ventilator is another place where it may be applied with 
advantage, as also are many of the small windows that are 
the feature of certain styles of domestic architecture. 



Chapter XIII 
CHIMNEY AND OTHER FLASHINGS 

The foregoing chapters have dealt with the actual manipu- 
lation of sheet lead. The examples of lead working shown 
cover the principal operations necessary in laying flashings 
and other roof work common to American practice. Owing 
to climatic and other conditions the use of the metal is at 
present more restricted than it is in European countries and 
for that reason only the simpler forms of flashings and gut- 
ter work required on buildings of moderate size will be de- 
scribed, but the rudiments at least will be covered. 

It must be remembered in laying sheet lead for roofing 
purposes, that soldered seams are not required, neither are 
they desirable. When corners have to be turned, instead of 
cutting the metal and inserting pieces or bending the metal 
back and soldering it as would be the case with copper or 
tin, the lead is beaten as described in former chapters. Thus 
the corner is free from any soldered joint and there is noth- 
ing to give out under the strains of expansion and contraction. 

When seams have to be made on horizontal surfaces between 
pieces of sheet lead, the flat double seam used with hard 
metals is not used. Instead, a hollow roll is formed. This is 
practically a double seam formed loosely and on a larger 
scale. Alternatively the roll and batten method of forming 
a seam may be adopted. This will be described fully later. 
Suffice it to say that it is practically the same as when copper 
is used. To hold the edges of sheets firmly so that they will 
not blow up in the wind, cleats of copper are used. These 
cleats are used also where it is necessary to provide support 
for sheets on a roof of steep pitch. 

75 ■ 



76 LEAD WORKING 

The movement caused by expansion and contraction of the 
lead with changes in temperature must be provided for. If 
sheet lead is laid so that no movement can take place the 
expansion of the metal in hot weather will cause it to bulge. 
Ultimately a ridge will be formed which will crack along 
the top. On the other hand, when contraction takes place 
and the metal is fastened firmly at all sides, the means of 
fastening will be torn out, cement in joints will be loosened 
or the metal itself will be torn. It is easy to make the nec- 
essary provision and in this lies the secret of successful appli- 
cation of lead on roofing work. 

The application of flashings differs according to the nature 
of the building more than as regards the actual position of 
the flashing. For instance, chimney flashings are put on in 
practically the same manner as window or side flashings when 
the building is of the same type throughout. On frame 
buildings, however, it is necessary to use methods different 
from those that would be used on a stone or brick building. 
Minor differences exist of course, but these will be apparent to 
anyone called upon to lay the metal who has a working 
knowledge of the business as a whole. 

In the main the practice is to set side flashings or aprons 
in front of windows, chimneys and structures rising higher 
than the roof so that the vertical surface rises some four or 
five inches above the roof line. Cap flashings are fitted over 
these, preferably, leaving the flashing free to move as 
required. 

Take, for instance, the flashing required for a brick chim- 
ney with a gutter behind it, as is common on pitched roofs. 
The details of such a chimney are shown in Fig. 79. In 
applying the flashing the front or breast is fitted first. In 
this case it is assumed that it is desired to fit the flashing 
over the slates. It can also be placed under them — that is, 



CHIMNEY AND OTHER FLASHINGS 77 



soo/^ 



the side flashing and gutter can. The only diff^erence is that 
a bead must be worked on the side in contact with the roof 
for the purpose of keeping the slate free from contact with 
the flat surface of the lead cap FLA5ff/N6. 
and aff^ording means of 
keeping rain from flowing 
over the flashing to the 
under side of the slate cov- 
ering. 

Thef breast flashing may 
be cut out at 10 to 12 in. 
wide and lead of 5 lb. per 
square foot weight should be 
used. The sheet is cut 12 
in. longer than the chimney 
so that 6 in. will project at 
either side. Then it is bent 
over a sharp plank so that 
the lead will stand up 
against the chimney 4 or 6 
in. according to the width 
cut. The greater height is 
the better. Reference to the illustration will show a dotted 
line lettered A A. This part should be cut out and the re- 
mainder of the projection beaten back so that it will lie 
flat on the roof. 

If the chimney is to be of brick throughout and is of con- 
siderable width, it may be better to lay the side flashing as 
shown in Fig. 80. Here the cap is stepped so that each course 
of brick is taken advantage of to fasten the upper edge and 
secure a water tight joint with the brickwork. If this method 
is not desirable a raglet or groove can be cut in the brickwork 
about 6 in. above the roof boards and the cap flashing fas- 




BREAST 



Fig 



Details of Chimney Flashings 

a. Gutter ready to beat over side flashing 

b. Gutter after drip is beaten over 

c. Breast flashing ready to beat over 
Parts marked A.A. to be cut out 



78 



LEAD WORKING 



FLASH rN6 FASTENED If/ 
JOINTS OF BRICKWORK -. 




RAFTER 



Fig. 80. 



tened to that. In this case the side flashing would be cut 
about 12 in. wide and would be long enough to reach from 
the lower edge of the breast flashing to the back line of the 

gutter sill. At the sill the 

J- ^■'^-.-- - lead is to be trimmed so 

that it will be flush with the 
edge. 

The slates are stopped 
at the level of the gutter 
so that the lead may lap 
over the last course at that 
Side Flashing with Stepped point. Alternatively, the 
^^^ side flashing may be fitted 

under the slate from the front line of the chimney. When 
this is done a bead is worked on the outer edge or the lead 
is turned over a narrow triangular fillet so that the slate will 
not lie in close contact with the lead, but will leave a space 
for water to flow down. 

The lead at the front of the chimney should be beaten 
around the brickwork as indicated in Fig. 81. A piece should 
be cut out of the upstanding part of the lead corresponding 
to that shown by the letters A A, Fig. 79, for the breast. This 
makes the work easier. Also, it is often more convenient 
to apply the flashings before the slates have been put on. 
When this is to be done pieces of sheathing board should be 
tacked around the chimney and the lead work dressed over 
them. The boards are approximately the thickness of the 
slates over which the lead finally will be dressed down. 

The piece for the gutter behind the chimney is cut so that 
the lead will project to the outside line of the side flashings. 
The sill or bottom of the gutter may measure from 4 in. to 
9 in., wide according to the size of the chimney. A pitch 
of one inch in eight or ten feet is suflicient for the gutter. 



CHIMNEY AND OTHER FLASHINGS 



79 




Fig. 81. Cobble Stonb Top Chimney 
WITH Lead Flashing and Cap Over 
Bkick Base 



The gutter upstand on the chimney should be from 4 to 6 
in. and on the roof from 6 to 8 in. or more according to the 
pitch. At least it should go far enough up to insure that 
no water will flow over the 
top of the lead at times when 
the gutter may be choked 
with snow. 

The lead in the gutter 
should be set up over a 
plank at each line of the 
bottom and dressed into 
place. Then the ends should 
be beaten over the drip in 
the manner indicated in Fig. 79. The same illustration also 
shows the wood fillet placed along the upper edge of the gut- 
ter to throw the slates up and keep them away from the lead. 
When the chimney is to be finished in field stone as in 
Fig. 81, but is brought up to the roof level in brick, as is 
commonly done, the best form of flashing is the cap shown 

there and in detail in Fig. 
82. This cap is beaten up 
out of one piece of lead and 
is turned up against the flue 
lining. When the stone 
work is placed, the cement 
mortar used is not always 
suflicient to keep water from 

Fig. 82. Lead Flashing Cap for Brick findino; its wav through to 
Chimney with Cobble Stone Top o ./ o 

the back and eventually 

down to the inside of the building. When this form of cap 

is used the water is caught there and caused to flow out to 

the roof again. The lead is turned down about S in. and 

up around the flue lining about 1% in. 



TILEUNim 
'' UPSTAND ik'' 



ROOFLINE 




80 



LEAD WORKING 




Side flashings are also fitted in sections along with each 
course of slate, shingle or tile, in the same manner as tin is 
applied. Then stepped cap flashings are used. Wedges made 
of lead are used to fasten the flashings in the joints of brick- 
work or raglets. These are calked in so as to expand them 
in the joint which is afterward filled with flexible cement suit- 
able for the purpose. 

The method of applying lead flashings on a tile roof is 
opsmD oTFusffm shown in Fig. 83. The de- 

jL„i^-j^'«5W5 tails show that half round 

tile blocks are used to make 
a flat surface at the breast 
of the chimney. This en- 
ables the lead worker to 
dress the metal closely to 
the tile and if a small pro- 
jection over the blocks is 
made and dressed over, 
there will be little chance of the lead blowing up in a 
storm. 

At the ends of the breast the lead is dressed down into the 
hollow part of the tile and the side flashings coming down 
to the front of the breast are treated in a similar manner. On 
a line with the front of the chimney, the lead is dressed so 
that it lies on the sheathing board and an upstand is turned 
on the outer edge of the side flashing to prevent water 
flowing over it. This upstand is covered with the next 
course of tile and on one side of the chimney a special 
form is used to bring the courses right. This is shown in 
Fig. 83. 

Window breasts and side flashings are treated in a similar 
manner, as will be noted later. The width of the side flash- 
ings will depend somewhat on how the tile comes in relation 



■TILE BLOCKS 
FITTED UNDER 
BREASTFUSmm 



Fig. 83. Details of Chimney Flash- 
ing FOR Spanish Tile Roof 



CHIMNEY AND OTHER FLASHINGS 



81 



¥ 



to the lines of the chimney, but as a rule it will be about 
12 in. wide. 

When a chimney or tower built of rubble or uneven blocks 
of stone is to be flashed, it is difficult to get a joint suitable 
for fastening the lead work 



SF/XE:. kX^^^^^ 




in, and if the stone is hard, 
it is difficult to cut raglets. 
For this condition the style 
of flashing shown in Fig. 
84, is adapted. 

A bead is turned on the 
flashing 4 in. from the roof 
board and flashing hooks 
are driven into convenient 
joints above thi^ bead. 
Roofing cement or Port- 
land cement is plastered over the junction with the chimney, 
the bead aflPording a support for it as well as stiff'ening the 
side flashing. This system should not be used where a joint 
can be used or a raglet cut, as the cement is liable to crack 
away from the lead in time. 



Fig. 



Wall with Irregular Joints 
84. Side Flashing foe Stone 



Chapter XIV 

RIDGES, VALLEYS, FLATS AND JOINTS 

The front and side elevations of a dormer window are 
shown in Fig. 85. The various parts that are to be covered 
with lead are indicated by the letters A to E inclusive. The 
first part that is laid on a window of this type is the sill (E) 
and this may be put down on the rough framing before the 
window is set, or laid when the window has been set in place. 




Fig. 85, Flashings on Dokmbr 

A. Ridge B. Valley C. Side Flashing D. Side Apron 

E. Sill Flashing 

In the first case the lead is cut about 20 in. wide and is set 
up about 1 in. all around the bed of the window, projecting 
over the roof boards in front of the bed some 12 in. It is 
then beaten down over the front of the plank forming the 
bed and the window frame work is placed in position. It is 
important to see that the carpenter does not nail his framing 
through the lead sill after this is in place. 

The side flashings are brought around the framing in the 
same manner as they are beaten around the breast of a chim- 
ney. At the upper end the side flashing is continued to meet 

82 



I 



RIDGES. VALLEYS, FLATS AND JOINTS 83 

the valley gutter and is beaten over the roof of the windo\^ 
so that the valley will lap properly. 

An apron (D) serves to make a tight connection with the 
window roof and sides. This is a narrow strip, generally 
6 in. wide, which is tacked on after the slates are in place and 
the moulding is put in place over it to make a neat finish. 
The wood moulding should be cut away at the point where it 
joins the main roof so that it will clear it by about one-half 
inch. Then water will flow freely from the corner of the 
slate where the valley joins the main roof. 

The valley gutter is beaten over the edge of the moulding 
on the side which forms the roof of the window. If the reg- 
ular ogee moulding is used the lead may be tacked to the 
vertical surface at the top of the ogee so that water will 
drip clear. At the ridge of the window the valley is beaten 
over about S in. so that this part is perfectly tight. In 
cutting out the strips enough material should be left to ex- 
tend as far as the outside edge of the first strip of gutter 
applied. Then when the work is complete the lead can be 
trimmed so that there will be sufficient lap over the first strip 
to insure water flowing from the upper roof into the valley 
without leaking at the junction. 

When the slates have been applied the window is finished 
by a ridge laid over a pole fastened as shown in Fig. 90. 
The method of laying this is to take a strip of lead of the 
correct width and bend it over a plank in the form of a gut- 
ter so that the breaks will just fit around the pole and lie 
close into the angle with the roof. The width of hips and 
ridges is generally 14 to 16 in. If the ridge pole is about 
2 in. in diameter it will take approximately 5 in. to cover it, 
leaving from 9 to 11 in. for covering the top courses of slate. 
This gives 4% in. to 5% in. on each side of the pole. A 
greater width would be likely to blow up in a heavy wind. 



84 



LEAD WORKING 




The lead may be fastened to the pole by means of lead cov- 
ered, flat headed nails, heavy iron straps may be nailed over it 
at intervals, or copper clips may be fastened under the pole and 
bent out over the edges of the lead as shown in Fig. 86. 

At the front end of the ridge over the window the lead 
should be beaten down to make a neat finish. This is an 

operation requiring a 
little patience to accom- 
plish without wrinkles, 
but the result is satisfac- 
. tory. The lead should 
project about 3 in. to al- 
low enough material to 
beat down properly. 

If the window framing 
is in place before the sill 
Fig. 86. Method of Coveeing Ridge flashing, the breast may 
be let up into a groove in the under side of the wooden sill 
and fastened at the ends under the side flashing to prevent 
it slipping down. If this is done it should be seen that the 
upstand in front of the window sill is at least 2 in. in height 
above the slate or tile and more if possible. 

A good shape for a valley gutter is that shown in Fig. 87. 
This allows room for expansion of the lead and also provides 
for a good flow of water when the roofs are covered with 
snow and water is flowing from it in process of melting. 
Wood fillets of a triangular shape fitted on each side keep 
the slates far enough from the valley to prevent dirt accumu- 
lating under the overhang and so induce leakage by capillary 
action. Lead of 6-lb. weight should be used in all gutters. 

Box gutters are built behind large cornices, parapet walls, 
or on flat roofs over bay windows and the like. They are 
necessary where a flat roof must drip to the outlet for a con- 



RIDGES, VALLEYS, FLATS AND JOINTS 85 




iVOOP 
FILLET 



ductor and are formed as shown in Fig. 87. The drips on 
long lengths are formed in the same manner as for center 
gutters but it is seldom that they will be found necessary, and 
their avoidance is desirable. The 
pitch on both box and center gut- 
ters need not be over 1 in. in 10 
feet. 

Eaves and cornice gutters can 
be formed of lead, but it is difficult 

to make proper allowance for ex- 

^ ^ Fig. 87. 

pansion if the runs are long. If CE>-TEii of valley Gutter 

it is possible to divide the eaves and cornices into lengths not 
exceeding 15 ft. between outlets, small box gutters can be 
formed at each outlet and the cornice or eaves gutter can 
be beaten down into this. Then a means of expansion will 
be available. The outlets from these box gutters are wiped 
into them and the lead pipe is carried to the conductor. If 
the cornice also is covered with lead a double or welt seam 
may be made at the junction with the box gutter. This per- 
mits easy movement of the lead and also prevents it blowing 

up in heavy winds. 

A box gutter is illustrated 
in Fig. 88. This is used in 
the junction between two 
roofs and is made in widths 
according to the amount of 

water to be handled. The 

Fig. 88. Box Gutter depth of the box may be 6 

in. or more as required and there should be sufficient material 
on the pitched roof part to ensure protection when heavy 
snow hes in the gutter. 

Neither gutter or valley should be laid in lengths exceed- 
ing ten feet. If this is done the expansion will form bulges 




86 



LEAD WORKING 



after a few years. If the lead is laid in comparatively short 
sections with loose joints these bulges will not occur. 

A valley gutter, where the pitch of the roof is normal, 
will require only a slip joint at the junction of two sections 
of lead. If the pitch is very steep proper means of sup- 
porting the lead to keep it from slipping down must be pro- 
vided. A good plan is to 
bend over the upper edge 
of the sections so that 
they turn over a horizon- 
tal roof. Then if the 
next board is nailed close- 
ly down, the lead will hang 
from that, and if a heavy 
copper clip is placed at 
the lower end and bent 
over the lead there will be 
little chance of the lead 
slipping or creeping 
down the roof as it expands. The method of supporting 
lead sheets in this manner is shown in Fig. 99, page 91. 

When a long center or box gutter is required it is neces- 
sary to lay it in sections so that each will not exceed 10 ft. 
in length. This is done by building the floor of the gutter 
in different levels, making a rise of 3 in. or more at each 10 
ft. length. The lead is applied as shown in Figs. 89 and 90. 
It will be seen that the sides of the gutter are set up some 
8 or 9 inches on the roof and that at the drip the lead is 
beaten up into external angles as described in an earlier chap- 
ter. This avoids soldering at the corners. The following 
length of gutter is allowed to project about 6 in. over the 
drip and a piece is cut out of it in the form of a very wide U. 
When the remainder is beaten down it leaves an ample cover 




Fig. 



Plan of Center Gutter at 
Drips 



RIDGES, VALLEYS, FLATS AND JOINTS 8" 



at the sides of the gutter and the part that comes down 
over the vertical drip does not quite reach the bottom of the 
gutter. The intention of this is to prevent water leaking 
back under the higher section by the action of capillary at- 
traction when dirt lodges at the angle of the two sheets. An 
additional safeguard is secured by forming a groove in the 
face of the upstand or drip face so as to preserve a fair 
sized space between the two sheets. A groove like this is 
shown in the illustration of another 
piece of lead work in Fig. 96. See 
page 90. 

When a long center gutter between 
two roofs is necessary it may be ad- 
vantageous to drip the gutter to each 
end of the roof. This saves width in 
the gutter bottom as the drips and 
pitch necessary on a long run rap- 
idly increase the width. At the high- 
est point, or center of the roof, the 
sheets are set up and a saddle is 
placed over the junction, or a hol- 
low roll is formed. A saddle is simply a drip piece about 4 
in. liigh and 6 in. wide against which the gutter coming from 
each side is stopped. To hold the comparatively small piece of 
lead firmly and prevent it blowing up in the wind, copper chps 
may be inserted below the lead and bent up over the sheet 
after it has been dressed. Also, if the width is great, a roll 
may be formed in the center of the saddle. The method of 
doing this will be explained in the following pages and the 
effect it has on stiffening the sheet will then be appreciated. 

Flat roofs are covered with lead in somewhat the same man- 
ner as when copper is used. The difference lies in the neces- 
sity of keeping the lengths of the sheets down to a point not 




Fig. 90. ^Method of ]Mak- 
ixG Joint at Deip 



88 



LEAD WORKING 




Fig. 91. A Solid Roll 



exceeding 10 and preferably 8 feet. Drips similar to those 
formed in gutters are therefore necessary. The sheets should 
be cut, for a large sized roof, so that they will finish 8 ft. 

wide and 8 ft. long. This 
means that allowance must 
be made in addition for the 
seams. These are of two 
kinds, the hollow roll and 
the batten roll. 

A hollow roll is shown in 
Fig. 92, a sohd roll in Fig. 
91 and a solid roll with 
cap in Fig. 93. The illustrations show very clearly the 
method of constructing each. The wooden roll over which 
the lead is dressed stands 
about 2% in. above the 
roof boards so that the fin- 
ished roll is S in. high. 
The lead on one side of the 
sheet is set up so that it, 



will reach to the top of the / 
roll and the side of the next 

sheet which will overlap it Fig. 92. hollow roll 

is left so that it will come over to a point about one-half 
inch from the roof line. Heavy copper clips are fastened 
to the roll and are bent over the upper sheet of lead to hold 

the edges firmly in place. 

No advantage is secured 
by the use of the separate 
cap, but it is in some condi- 
tions easier to apply. Clips 
FIG. 93. Solid Roll and Cap ^re also USed to hold this 

down, as is shown in the illustration. 




^COPPER CLIP fSND 
FASTENING. 




RIDGES, VALLEYS, FLATS AND JOINTS 89 

The hollow roll is most favored b}^ lead workers and is 
formed as shown and as described in an earlier chapter. The 
lead is set up for a distance of -^ in. on one side of the sheet 
and the side of the following sheet which is to form part of 
the roll is set up one-half inch more. When this is turned 
over and dressed closely and the roll is then turned over to 
the correct shape, a water-tight joint with plenty of room 
for movement in expansion and contraction is secured. 

As the sheets are laid, strips of heavy copper are nailed to 
the sheathing boards and brought up between the sheets. 
These are bent over with the sheets and serve to keep them 
in place. At the upper end, where the sheet comes to the 
higher level forming the first drip, the sheets are beaten up 




X^^y^yy/^///////A 



Fig. 94. Hollow Roll Re- 

TUENED AT DkIP 



SfiEET SHEET 




Fig. 95. Section of Hollow 
Roll Retuexed at Deip 



about three inches. The hollow roll is rather hard to beat 
up at this point, but the method to be followed has already 
been indicated and Figs. 94^ and 95 will help to make it clear. 
It is necessary to handle the lead carefully at this point so 
that when it has been drawn over the roll there will be suffi- 
cient to make a proper lap on the next sheet. 

The front edge of the following sheet where it turns down 
over the drip may be treated as shown in Figs. 96, 97, or 
98. In the first instance the hollow roll should be turned 
down as sho^^^l in the example earlier in this work. In Figs. 
97 and 98 a half-round block is nailed along the drip and 
the lead is dressed over it as shown. The appearance of the 



90 



LEAD WORKING 




roll is shown in Fig. 97, while Fig. 98 shows the means of 
fastening the sheets. At the front of a flat roof discharging 
over a pitched roof the method shown in Fig. 97 secures 

the best appearance. A lead 
apron fastened under the 
half-round block and dressed 
over the slates forms the re- 
mainder of the drip edge. 

On roofs discharging in 
more than one direction, a 
Fig. 96. Roll Turned Down at Dbip saddle is placed at the high- 
est point and all drips are figured from there. This is bet- 
ter than to make the junction of the ends of the sheets by 
means of a cross roll as they 
'are more free 
the work is 
form. 

If the roof which is to be 
covered with sheet lead 
pitched the sheets have 
tendency to creep downward 
when expanded. This is counteracted 
fastening them 



to move and 
easier to per- 




Fig. 97. Roll Tdened Down at Drip 



by the method of 
At the upper end of each sheet (drips are 
not necessary when the pitch 
is such as to run the water 
off freely) the lead is bent 
over the sheathing boards. 
Then a wooden cleat may be 
nailed to the back of the 
Fig. 98. Method of Fastening Sheets board to prevent the lead 
from tearing or if the next board is fitted closely this may be 
omitted. 

At the bottom of the sheets copper clips are placed to sup- 




RIDGES, VALLEYS, FLATS AND JOINTS 91 



port it. These clips should be of heavy sheet copper and 

about three inches wide. The len^h of the sheet and the 

pitch of the roof will determine how many 

should be used. The bending of the lead 

over the sheathing at the upper end of the 

sheet will take most of the weight 

and the clips will be of service 

principally in keeping the sheet 

from tearing as it ex- ^ 

pands. The clips, the 

method of bending the 

upper edge of the sheet 

over the sheathing 

boards, and the lap necessary to secure a tight roof, are 

shown in Fig. 99. Nails should never be driven through 

the sheet to support it as they will surely tear the metal 

after some time. 




SHEATHING 



COPPER CUP 
2^ IN. WIDE 



Fig. 99. 

Method of 

SuppOKTixG Sheets 

ON Pitched Roof 



Chapter XV 



DOMES, FINIALS, PIPE FLASHINGS AND TANKS 

Lead is especially well adapted for ornamental roof work. 
It often will secure a more pleasing effect than copper or 
other hard metals. It can be beaten into any shape and is 
easily /cast' into moulds where ornamentation is required. 

Consequently its field is lim- 
ited only by the ambition of 
the architect and the ability 
of the contractor. 

The covering of domes af- 
fords an excellent _ example 
of the suitability of the 
metal for pleasing and ef- 
fective construction. No 
soldered seams are neces- 
sary, therefore there are 
fewer chances of leaks de- 
veloping in service. No 
vertical joints are hard to 
make tight or hard to make 
sightly. The metal lends 
itself excellently to any con- 
tour of the roof. The small dome illustrated in Fig. 100 
shows this to advantage. This is a hexagonal ventilator, suit- 
able for a garage, stable, or other building requiring a ven- 
tilator of considerable capacity. The treatment is simple 
and the results likely to give entire satisfaction. 

In this case one of the angles of the ventilator is in line 
with the ridge of the main roof and the base is extended until 

92 




Fig. 100. A Hexagonal Ventilator 




DOMES, FINIALS, PIPE FLASHINGS, ETC. 93 

the roof is reached at an equal pitch on each side. The lead 
work should be put in place before the louvers are inserted, 
or at least before the lower boards are fastened. 

The first part to be put on is the apron flashing along 
the base. This covers the top course of slate about 6 in. and 
stands up the base about 4 in. The side flashings are put 
on in a similar manner and are beaten around the front of 
the base about 2 in. These are brought to the ridge and 
beaten over about 1 in. to 
support their weight. 
They also may be nailed 
to the base as there will 
be sufficient opportunity 
to move in the other di- 
rection when the metal 

expands or contracts. 

,_,, ,11 • / Fig. 101. Plan of Sill at Post 

Inen the base is cov- 
ered and hollow rolls or seams are made at each corner. In- 
stead of leaving them standing up as are the rolls on a flat 
surface, they may be flattened if preferred. Wide strips of 
copper are nailed ta the w^oodwork before the sheets are 
fastened on the base and are bent up over the lower edge to 
hold back and support the side sheets. 

The sills of the ventilator require the most work. They 
must be set up to clear the posts and to cause any water 
which might find its way behind the louvers to run back to 
the outside. A plan of the sill is shown in Fig. 101. From 
this it will be seen that the lead is beaten up around the post 
and along the back and that the junction with the sills on the 
o-ther faces is made through double seams. 

The illustration in Fig. 102 shows a section through the 
sill and post flashings. Note that a rebate is cut in the 
posts so that the cap flashing may come back flush with the 



94 



LEAD WORKING 



I 




CAP FLASHING 
SiLL coy ERIN 6 



M 



Fig. 102. SECTIO^^ Through Sill, 
AND Post Flashings 



face of the post. White lead is put in behind the sheet lead 
before it is tacked to the post. Then any water which may 

run down the face of the post 
will flow over the cap without 
leakage. Copper clips should 
be used to hold back the over- 
turn of the sill on the ventilator 
base as is done with the base 
itself. The clips are shown in 
Fig. 103. 

The covering of the dome is 
comparatively simple. The most 
important thing is to secure a 
correct pattern for the sheets 
which form the bays. If the 
method shown in Fig. 104 is fol- 
lowed there will be no trouble in making the work look well. 
It is necessary first to find the exact length of the bay by a 
steel tape held at the top 
and applied to the contour 
of the dome. Then a line 
is drawn across the sheet 
and the length of the bay 
is set off at right angles to 
it as shown in the illus- 
tration. This line is used 
as a center from which to 
get the correct shape of the 
lead covering. 

The longitudinal sur- 
face of the bay is divided into as many equal parts as is 
convenient and the width of each is noted. Then the line 
on the sheet is divided off in the same manner and the meas- 




FiG. 103, 



View of Cornee Seam and 
Post Flashing 



DOMES, FINIALS, PIPE FLASHINGS, ETC. 95 



urements transferred to it. Make allowance on each side 
for the roll at the angle and cut chrough the marks. As the 
rolls need not be so large on a small dome as they would be 
on a large one or on a flat roof, an allowance of 3 in. and 
3% in. probably will be sufficient. The size of the dome must 
determine this. On a large dome a small roll appears flat and 
ineff'ective. 

The ball finial is made by bossing up two circular pieces 
of lead to the right shape. The lower half of the finial is 
the harder to make. The 
base must first be bossed up. 
Commence by making a hole 
in the lead and gradually 
beat that down so as to 
widen it and bring it up to 
right angles with the sheet 
at the same time. While this 
is being done the circular 
sheet must be dressed in the 
other direction so as to form 
a cup. This is most quickly 
accomplished by corrugat- 
ing it around the outer edge 
and drawing the corrugations until the sheet begins to form 
a cup. The true shape is reached by alternately bossing the 
base and reducing the neck at the junction of the ball. 

Another method is to make the ball separate and join it 
to the base by the lead burning process. Or if the ball is a 
small one it may be formed out of a piece of 4-in. soil pipe, 
the base being bossed out sufficiently to cover the neck at the 
top of the dome. A double seam may be formed here, and 
would be in the case of a large dome. On a small one the 
finial may have to be fastened by copper tacks, a bolt through 




Fig. 



104. Method of Pkepaking Pat- 
tern FOE Dome Bays 



96 



LEAD WORKING 






the top of the finial into the center post or by screws over 

which are soldered small lead caps. 

Finials for turrets are sometimes very elaborate. Many 

of them require cast ornaments which 

are added to the sheet metal work, but 

at the same time effective treatment is 

obtainable by simple lead beating. 
For instance, the finial shown in Fig. 

105 is made from four pieces of sheet 

lead and looks well on any turret of 

moderate size. The center post of the 

turret is carried up for a distance be- 
yond the roof line sufficient to get the 

vane at the top attached and is fluted 

as shown. The flashing for the top 

of the roof is made from a piece of 

sheet lead cut as shown in Fig. 106. 
In arriving at the pattern the line 

of the tower roof should first of all be 

indicated on the lead as shown by the dotted line in the illus- 
tration. A line should be struck at right angles to the base 

line A B and should pass 
up through the center as 
C D. Then from the base 
line A B draw a line 
through to the center line 
which will touch the upper 
and outer edge of the tower 
outline. From that point 
extend a line to meet the 
center line C D, as at G. 
Then with G as a center 
and the point E as radius, 




Fig. 105. Design foe a 
Finial Made from Four 
Pieces of Lead 




Fig. 



106. Method of Obtaining Pat- 
tern FOE Finial Flashing 



DOMES, FINIALS, PIPE FLASHINGS, ETC. 97 

describe the arc of a circle as shown. With G as center and 
F as radius draw another arc. These Hnes will form the outer 
lines of the pattern. 

To get the correct outline and make allowance for the 
seam, space off the outer line as shown. That is, the cir- 
cumference of a circle is 3.1416 times the diameter or 
roughly three and one-seventh times. Therefore if the half 
of the diameter is marked off into three spaces and then the 
larger circle is stepped off into 19 spaces of the same size, 
the pattern will be for all practical purposes correct. The 
side lines are drawn from the last point on the larger arc to 
G on the center line and then allowance is made for the double 
seam which will join the two edges of the cone. 

The lead is then set up to the required shape and the seam 
roughly formed. It should not be completed until the lead 
has been dressed in to fit the hollow at the peak, where the 
change is made in the outline to fit the finial or center post. 

After it has been dressed back tightly the seam should be 
indicated on the lead and trimmed to the proper size. After 
the seam has been completed the piece should be placed over 
the peak and dressed down into its proper position. 

A bead may be turned around the bottom to stiffen it, 
the edge may be scalloped, or ornaments may be bossed up 
as shown in the illustration. The latter also serve to stiffen 
the lead as well as take away the plain appearance. 

The coA^ering for the post is made from a piece of lead 
pipe if the turret is a small one, or from a sheet with a double 
seam at the joint if it be a large tower. The beads and 
flutings are easily formed with the dresser and mallet. 

The ball is made from two pieces of lead as already 
described and the vane is screwed down through this into the 
center post. In order to support the vane and to stiffen the 
ball to withstand any swing of the iron work, heavy lead 



98 



LEAD WORKING 




Fig. 107. 



Cast and Sheet Lead Con- 
ductor Head 



washers may be soldered inside the ball before it is seamed 

together or the post may be carried up to the inside surface 

as preferred. 

Another use to which lead is put with satisfactory results 

is in the manufacture of 
^' conductors and ornamental 

heads. A good example is 
shown in Fig. 107. This 
is a composite cast and 
sheet lead head and is made 
with burned seams. Such 
a head made from sheet 
lead entirely is difficult to 
construct and will not pos- 
sess the requisite stiffness. 
As a rule the designs are 

made to suit the style of architecture followed in the building 

and while the heads are necessarily expensive the work does 

not offer much difficulty to a skilled mechanic. 
Conductors also are 

made by the use of drawn 

lead pipe or heavy sheets 

with burned seams. The 

fastenings are of cast 

lead burned to the pipe at 

intervals. The lengths 

are made with slip joints 

which may be concealed 

by the form of the lugs 

or fastenings, or the hubs 

may be ornamented as 

shown in the illustration where the head joins the pipe. 
Where vent pipes pass through slate or tile roofs lead forms 




(FRONT) 

SECTION THR0U6H 
SOIL PIPE ROOF 
FLASHINS 



SECTION THROUGH 
ROOF FLASHINS 



APPEARANCE OF ROOF 
FLASHING 



Fig. 108. 



Lead Flashings foe Vent 
Pipes 



DOMES, FINIALS, PIPE FLASHINGS, ETC. 99 

the best flashings. The method of applying it is shown in Fig. 
108. Where the roof is of tile the width of the flashing will 
be determined by the position of the pipe in relation to 
the line of the tiles, but the sheet may be cut out at about 
21 in. X 21 in. The hub of the pipe is brought up to a line 
with the back line of the tile as shown. Then the lead is 
applied and beaten down into the hub for a distance of about 
1 in. and around the outside of the hub to fit it snugly and 
lie close to the tile. The weight of the lead should be held 
up while the beating is in progress or the metal will be cut 
over the sharp edges of the hub. As shown, one side of the 
flashing is under the tile and the other over it. Sometimes 
a half round tile will be fitted to make up the space taken by 
the flashing so that both sides are under it. This half round 
tile is shown in the illustration of a chimney flashing on a tile 
roof in an earlier chapter. 

If the lower edge of the flashing comes right with the edge 
of a course of tile or slate, it may be bent back under it about 
one-half inch. This prevents it blowing up in a higli wind. 
Clips may be used to serve the same purpose if preferred. 

Lead is seldom used for small tanks unless for laboratory 
purposes and then the seams generally are burned. Occa- 
sionally a sink may be required where the lining must be in 
one piece. This is accomplished by beating the sides up as 
described in a previous chapter and the procedure is obvious. 
Where flashings are required in addition, or a drip board is 
to be covered, it will be hard to make it in one piece and the 
best method is to make a burned seam at the junction with 
the sides of the sink and the drip board or flashing. Alterna- 
tively, a double seam may be used at the same point. 

In large tanks where the seams must of necessity be burned, 
it is much easier of accomplishment if the seams are ^way 
from the corners. In Fig. 109 is shown how the seams are 



100 



LEAD WORKING 



BUTT OR LAP SEAM 




Fia 109. Skeleton View of Lead 
Tank Lining Peepaeed foe Bdened 
OR Soldered Seams 



kept out about 3 in. from the walls of the tank. The lead 
simply is turned over the required amount and the corners arc 
beaten as has already been described. Where the seams are 
to be wiped it is as easy 
to do so in the angle as on 
a flat surface and no ad- 
vantage is secured by beat- 
ing over the corners. 
When the tank is a very 
large one, supports are 
provided to keep the 
sheets from bulging out. 
Hollows are formed in the 
walls and the lead is beaten back into them. Then the hol- 
low is wiped full of solder after a heavy screw has been 
turned through the lead or a small circle of lead is burned 
over the hollow to protect the screw head and stop any leak 
at the point where it passes through. 

In addition, it sometimes is necessary to strengthen the 
tank with tie bars. These are long bolts which pass through 
the walls and lead pipe is slipped over them and wiped or 
burned to the lead lining. While this work is mostly special- 
ized, it may come within the province of the plumber or sheet 
metal worker on occasion and should not offer any great 
difficulty of successful accomplishment to one who has ac- 
quired skill in handling sheet lead. In a manufacturing 
community such ability may be of great value to its possessor 
as lead is the only practical metal for use in many manufac- 
turing operations requiring acids and gases. 



INDEX 



Acids, Action of on lead 10 

Action of expansion in lead . . 8 
Advantage of solderless cor- 
ners in roof flashings ... 75 

Angle, Laying out of 39 

Angles, External 58 

Angle, Sharpening of in bends, 45 

Angles, Internal 62 

B 

Ball for driving bobbins 

through pipe 27 

Base, Finial, Pattern of 97 

Ball finials 95 

Bays on domes, Getting pat- 
tern of 94 

Beads, Raising on lead flash- 
ings 57 

Bending appliances 46 

Batten rolls 89 

Bending pin, Use of in making- 
bends . 33 

Bends, Keeping proper diam- 
eter of pipe in 25 

Bends, Laying out angle 39 

Bends, Long 20 

Bends, Making by bobbins . . 23 

Bends, Making by dummy . . 16 

Bends, Making by spring ... 42 

Bends, Making by sand .... 36 

Bends, Making short heel. ... 31 

Bends, Making sharp 40 

Bends, Making wide radius . . 28 
Bends, Proper method of mak- 
ing various sizes 41 

Bends, Retaining thickness of 

pipe in 17 

Bends, Testing heat in 6 

Bends, Throttling of in mak- 
ing 25 

Bends, Making smooth finish, 22 

Bobbins, Best form of 25 

Bobbins, Driving through pipe, 

27, 29 

Bobbins, Pulling through pipe, 27 
Bobbins, Sticking of at heel 

of bend 28 



Bobbins, Use of in making- 
bends 23, 24 

Bolts, Tie, for tanks 100 

Box gutters 85 

Box gutters. Drips in 86 

Box and valley gutters. 

Length of 85 

Breast, Window, Finish of . . . 84 

Brick chimney, Flashing for . . 77 

Building rubble. Flashings for, 81 



Caps for field stone chimneys, 80 

Care of springs 47 

Cause of cracks in lead flash- 
ings 76 

Center gutters, Saddles in . . . 87 

Circular flashings 71 

Chimney flashings. Width of. 77 

Chimney gutters 78 

Chimney gutters, Height of 

upstand on 79 

Chimneys, Stone caps for .... 80 

Clips for fastening rolls 89 

Conductors and heads 98 

Copper clips for fastening 

rolls 89 

Corners, Round on lead flash- 
ings 53, 55 

Corners. Solderless 75 

Cornice gutters 88 

Corrosion of lead 8 

Corrosion of lead. Prevention 

of 9 

Cracks in lead flashings, Cause 

of 76 



Details of dormer flashings . . 82 
Difficulty of wiping- joints on 

short heel bends 34 

Difference in nature of lead 

from other roofing metals, 75 

Domes, Covering of with lead, 92 

Dormers, Lead flashings for, 82 
Drain boards. Covering by 

sheet lead 56 

Drawing lead flashings 71 



101 



102 



LEAD WORKING 



PAGE 
Dressers, Keeping in condition, 14 
Dressing pipe to retain thick- 
ness 17 

Drift plugs, Use of 38 

Drips in box and center gut- 
ters 86 

Drips on flat roofs 88 

Drying sand for pipe bending, 37 

Dummies, Lead working. . .15, 16 

E 

Eaves and cornice gutters ... 88 

Expansion in lead 8 

Expansion of lead in valley 

gutters 85 

Extending handle of dummy . . 21 

F 

Field stone chimneys, Caps 

for 80 

Finial base, Pattern of 97 

Finials, Ball 95 

Finials, Making ornamental . . 96 

Finials, Fastening vane on . . 97 

Finish of bends 22 

Flap, Lead 21 

Flashing caps for field stone 

chimneys 80 

Flashings, Circular 71 

Flashings, Chimney 77 

Flashings, Cracks in 76 

Flashings, Lead, for dormer, 82 

Flashings for rubble building, 81 

Flashings for vent stacks ... 98 

Flashings, Raising beads on . . 57 

Flashings, Side stepped 80 

Flashings, Stretching and 

drawing 71 

Flashings, Step 78 

Flashing rolls, Beating 66 

Flashings under slates 79 

Flat roofs. Lead covering for, 88 

Flexibility of lead connections, 10 
Followers, Use of in making 

bends 29 

G 

Grading sand for pipe bend- 
ing 37 

Gutters, Box 85 

Gutters, Box, Drips in 86 

Gutters, Center, Saddles in . . . 87 

Gutters, Chimney 78, 79 



PAGE 
Gutters, Eaves and cornice . . 88 
Gutters, Long center. Pitch of, 87 
Gutters, Valley 85 

H 

Heads and Conductors 98 

Heat, Testing of in making 

bends 6 

Heel bends 31 

Height of upstand on chim- 
ney flashings 77 

Height of upstand on chim- 
ney gutters 79 

Hips and ridges, Width of . . . 83 
Hexagonal ventilator. Cover- 
ing of 92 

Hollow rolls 66, 89 

I 

Internal angles, Beating 62 

K 

Keeping dressers in condition, 14 
Knot traps, Making 48 

L 

Lead, Advantages and disad- 
vantages of 8 

Lead ball for driving bobbins 

through pipe 27 

Lead, Beating external angles 

on sheet 58 

Lead, Beating internal angles 

on , . . . 62 

Lead, Beating round corners 

on 53 

Lead conductors and heads . . 98 

Lead, Corrosion of 8 

Lead covering of domes 92 

Lead, Difference in from other 

roofing metals 75 

Lead, Expansion of 8 

Lead, for use in trays and 

other work 54 

Lead fiashings. Stretching and 

drawing 71 

Lead flap. Use of in making 

bends 21 

Lead flashings for dormer .... 82 
Lead flashings for rubble 

building 81 

Lead flashings for tile roof . . 80 



INDEX 



103 



PAGE 

Lead flashings for vent stacks, 98 

Lead lining- for tanks 99 

Lead pipe bends 16 

Lead pipe. Heating for bends, 16 

Lead pipe, Proper storage of, 15 

Lead, Properties of 8 

Lead pipe, Removing dents in, 15 

Lead ridges 83 

Lead sheets, Support of, on 

pitched roofs 86 

Lead tank linings, Tie bolts 

for 100 

Lead valleys 83 

Lead work. Tools used in. . . . 12 
Lead working. Special knowl- 
edge of 7 

Lead worker, Qualifications of, 11 
Length of box and vallev gut- 
ters .' 85 

Linings for tanks 99 

Long bends, Making by 

dummy 20 

Long center gutters. Pitch of, 87 

Lubrication of springs 47 

M 

Marking lead pipe in bending, 18 



Ornamental conductor heads . . 98 
Ornamental finials 96 



P 

Pattern of dome bays, Draw- 
ing \ 94 

Pattern of finial base 97 

Pig ear, Forming on lead sheet, 59 

Pipe, Heating of 15 

Pipe, Storage of 15 

Pipe, Removing dents in 15 

Pipe, Protection of 18 

Pipe, Marking in bending. ... 18 

Plugs, Drift 38 

Plugs, Rubber bending 45 

Prevention of lead corrosion, 9 

Properties of lead 8 

Protection of lead pipes. . . .9, 18 

Q 

Qualifications of a lead 

worker 11 



PAGE 

R 

Ridges and hips. Width of . . 83 

Ridges, Lead 83 

Roof, Flashings for 80 

Roofs, Flat, Lead covering for, 88 

Rolls, Batten 89 

Rolls, Fastening of 89 

Rolls, Hollow 66, 89 

Rolls, Return of, at drips and 

upstands 90 

Rolls, Solid 89 

Rubber bending plugs 45 

Rubble building, Flashings for, 81 

S 

Saddles in center gutters 87 

Sand, Grading of 37 

Sand plugs 38 

Sand, Proper packing of 39 

Sand, Use of in pipe bending, 36 

Sharp bends, Making 40 

Sheet lead. Bending round cor- 
ners on 53 

Sheets, Support of 86 

Side flashings. Stepped 80 

Short heel bends 31 

Solderless corners in roof 

flashings, Advantages of, 75 

Solid rolls 89 

Springs, Lubrication and care 

of 47 

Springs, Use of in pipe bend- 
ing 42 

Step flashings 78 

Stepped side flashings 80 

Storing springs 47 

Storing lead pipe 15 

Stretching and thinning lead 

in working 72 

Stick, Wiping 34 

Support for tank linings 99 

Support of valley gutters ... 85 

T 

Tank linings 99 

Tank linings. Support f or . . . 99 

Tank linings, Tie bolts for . . . 100 

Testing heat in making bends, 6 

Thickening of lead in working, 72 

Thickness of pipe in bending, 17 

Thinning of lead in working, 72 

Thinning of pipe in bends .... 33 

Throttling 25 



104 



LEAD WORKING 



PAGE 

Tie bolts for lead tanks 100 

Tile roof, Lead flashings for . . 80 
Tools used in beating lead 

corners 55 

Tools, Various, used in lead 

work 12, 14 

Traps, Making knot 48 

Traps, Types made by hand. . 48 

Traps, Various types of knot, 51 

U 

Upstands on chimney flash- 
ings. Height of 77 

Use of various lead working 

tools 12 

Use of sand in pipe bending, 36 

Use of wiping stick 34 

V 
Valley and box gutters. 

Length of 85 



PAGE 

Valley gutters, Expansion 

type 85- 

Valley gutters. Support of . . . 85 

Valleys, Lead 83 

Vane, Fastening, on Finial . . 97 

Vent stack flashings 98 

Ventilator, Covering of with 

lead 92 



of 



W 

Water, Unsuitability 

in pipe bending 36 

Width of chimney flashings. . 77 

Width of hips and ridges ... 83 

Window breast, Finish of... 84 

Wiping stick. Use of 34 

Wooden tools. How to keep in 

condition 14 




Best Books on Plumbing and Heating 

Mutton's Country Plumbing Practice 

An invaluable book for the Plumber whose work is done principally in Suburban 
and Rural Districts. The author, who is a practical plumber himself, illustrates 
and explains how to Design, Install and Repair Modem 
Systems of Water Supply and Sewage Disposal especially 
adapted for Country Buildings. Typical installations of 
various kinds of plumbing work in new and old houses are 
also given. The chapters treating on Water Supply, Sewage 
Disposal and Septic Tanks are of particular value, as the 
law now requires people in Country Towns, as well as in 
cities, to provide an ample supply of water and proper means 
for the removal of organic waste from houses and other 
buildings. Hutton not only tells you how to design and 
install the various appliances needed for this work, but 
how to finish the work so that it will not menace the health 
of the neighboring residents. Every one of the 19 chapters 
is written so you can readily understand it. You'll find 
this book a big help in doing difficult jobs. 

Contents. — Engines Used for Water Supply Systems. Mechanical Details 
of Gasolene Engines. Sources of Electric Current, Cooling, Governing and 
Repair of Engines. Setting Gasolene Engines and Pumps. Hot Air Engines, 
Windmills and Electric Motors. Steam Driven Pumps. Hydraulic Rams. 
Selection of a Water Supply, Determining Quantity and Quality. Filtration. 
Relative Corrosion of Pipes. Water Supply from Wells and Springs. Methods 
of Raising Water. Distribution of Water Supply to Buildings. Water Supply 
by Air-Pressure, Fire Protection, Sprinklers. Sewage Disposal from Isolated 
Buildings. Various Methods of Liquefaction, Filtration and Disposal. Methods 
of Laying Tile and Iron Drains from House to Sewer or Outfall at Septic Tank. 
Collection and Storage of Rain Water. Covering Sink Drip Boards with Sheet 
Metal. Roof Connections, Bubbling Fountains, Plumbing Tests. Structural 
Features of Country-Plumbing Systems. Examples of Work in Country Schools, 
Office Buildings, Stations, and other Public Buildings. Installing Plumbing 
in Old Buildings. 

310 Pages. 7 X 9 in. 229 Figs. Cloth. $2.00 

Hutton's Hot Water Supply and Kitchen Boiler Connections 

This new book provides specialized and reliable information on the installa- 
tion and repair of hot water service, with examples covering all conditions likely 
to arise in practice. Special attention is given to instalhng special apparatus 
and making proper connections for them. The illustrations are clear and well 
detailed, so they show all the construction at a glance. 

Contents. — Principles of Heating, Combustion Transmission of Heat, etc.; 
Corrosion of Water Fronts, Boilers and Pipes, Deposit of Sediment, etc.; Water 
Fronts, Coils and Heaters; Examples of Range Conditions for Various Condi- 
tions; Variations in Connections to Suit Special Conditions; Multiple Con- 
nections with Tank and Pressure Supply; Supply Connections and Distribution; 
Hot Water Circulation in Large Buildings; Double Boilers, Connections and 
Distributing Pipes; Heating Water by Gas; Heating Water by Steam Coils and 
by Injecting Steam, and by Coils in Heating Apparatus; Utilizing Excess Heat 
in Warming Rooms and Domestic Appliances; Air Locking, Expansion of Water, 
Relief Pipes and Valves; Common Complaints and Their Remedies; Repair 
Kinks; Typical Examination Questions on the Theory and Practice on Hot Water 
Supply Installation. 

211 Pages. 6x9 in. 151 Figs. Cloth. $1.50 
Sent Prepaid by David Williams Company, 239 W. 39th St., N. Y. 



Kaiser^s Repair Kink3 for Plumbers 

A book which will appeal especially to the man controlling a repair business 
or who is engaged in a shop of this nature. It will be equally useful to those in 
charge of buildings. To the young man entering the trade it offers much valuable 
information which can come only from experience and close observation of the 
working of plumbing appliances under varying conditions. 

Contents. — Qualifications of the Repair Man; Kitchen Sink Bibbs; Reseat- 
ing Bibbs; Different Types of Bibbs; Repairs to Service Pipe; Fuller Sink 
Bibbs; Pantry Sink Cocks; Wash Tray Repairs; The Wash Stand; Repairs to 
Marble Work; Leaky Waste Connections; Remedying Large Holes in Marble 
Tops; Basin Supply and Waste Connections; Repairs at the Bath Tub; Water 
Closet Repairs; Imperfect Flush of Water Closets; Removing Obstructions 
from Water Closets; Water Closet Cistern Repairs; Water Closet Flush Valves; 
Non-Siphon Flush Valves; Flushometers; Stoppages in Waste Pipes and Fix- 
ture Traps; Thawing Water Pipes; Automatic Gas Water Heaters; Heater 
Trouble-Complaint, Cause and Remedy; Tools for Repair Work. 

67 Pages. 5x8 in. 28 Figs. Cloth. 50c. 
Fay's The Art of Lead Burning 

The importance and practical utility of the process in such operations as the 
burning of seams, pipe joining, etc., makes an up-to-date work on the various 
phases of the subject a welcome addition to the plumber's reference library. 
The book gives all needed preliminary information with descriptions of the appa- 
ratus, and specially prepared cuts showing the work from beginning to end. 

Contents. — The Apparatus; Hydrogen Gas; The Construction of the Gen- 
erator; Making the Gas to Burn the Generator; Connecting the Apparatus; 
Charging the Generator; The Flame and Its Management; The Different Kinds 
of Seams; Pipe Seams Acid Chamber Work; Special Hydrogen Apparatus and 
Burner; Soft Soldering with the Mouth Blow Pipe. 

152 Pages. 5x8 in. 57 Figs. Linen Crash. $1.50 
Button's Contract and Estimate Record Book for Plumbers 

A complete system of figuring the cost of all items, riser by riser. It is so 
arranged that it may be used on large or small jobs. 

Every item that is apt to be required for a good job is listed in the order in. 
which it would logically be figured. This new method of figuring up the work 
riser by riser has proven very popular among enterprising plumbers. 

Many valuable tables are included for reference in computing weights, sizes, etc, 

408 Pages. 12x9 in. Tables. Cloth. $2.00 
Gray's Estimate and Contract Record Book for Plumbers 

All the estimator has to do in getting his costs, if he uses this book, is to fill 
in the quantities and prices. Everything required for all classes of up-to-date 
plumbing is taken up in logical order. The job is separated into sections and 
each of these lists all the supplies used on that portion of the work. In this way 
all chance of duplicating or forgetting is eliminated and it is now possible to 
figure a portion of the job without having to wonder where you left off, when 
taking it up again. The sewer, roughing in, fixtures and fittings, supply work, 
etc., being thus separated, the user may easily check any portion which does not 
seem to bear a proper relation of cost to the rest. The forms are perforated so 
that they may be removed if desired. They have also been punched to fit stand- 
ard files and loose-leaf books. Send for sample form. 

168 Pages. 4x9 in. 40 Forms. Cloth. 75c. 
Sent Prepaid by David Williams Company, 239 W. 39th St., N. Y, 




Gray's Plumbing Design and Installation 

This new book should be in every plumbing shop where It can 
be constantly referred to by both the mechanic and master, for 
it covers both the theory and practice of all branches of the 
trade and is based on the life work of a man who passed through 
all the stages, from an old time apprenticeship to an honorary 
mastery of the trade. 

It represents a wide study, searching observation and 
the exhaustive experience of a man who has earnestly 
endeavored to help those in the field in which he labored. 
It gives that information which has been lacking in the 
American training of plumbers. It contains the solu- 
tions of problems which brought loss to those who could 
refer to nothing that would aid in mastering them. A 
new use is made of engineering data arranged to be 
readily applied to the questions which confront the 
practical plum.ber doing every class of work. 

It is a collection of information applicable to an in- 
finite variety of questions that are apt to come up in 
your daily practice at any time. For convenience the 
book has been divided into five sections or parts, and each secticn has 
been prepared with a view to serving those whose education has been 
limited. The beginner may take it as his text book and a persistent study 
of it will serve the most of his needs. 

The book has 560 pages, with 500 illustrations and S3 tables. A 28-page 
double column cross reference index enables the user to quickly locate 
any information. 

Part I has 18 chapters and opens with the Properties of Substances ; 
The Basis of Measuring Heat in Water and Steam ; Weights and Meas- 
ures, and Mathematics for all Calculations Required in Designing Work 
for any Purpose, This is followed by information on Thread ; Fittings ; 
Strength of Material; Capacity of Pipes, etc. 

Part II opens with Data and Tables on Lead assembled as never before; 
followed by explanations and illustrations of the use of lead for varied 
purposes. Pneumatic Water Supply and Tank Capacity ; Wood Tank 
Construction ; Wind Pressure on Tanks ; Construction of Concrete Reser- 
voirs; The Effects of Frost; Village Water Supply Systems with Water 
Heater and Methods of Computing their Size; Range Boiler Connections; 
Swimming Pool Heating, Cooling Drinking Water, etc. 

Part III relates to Plumbing Fixtures and their Connections, including 
Bath Tubs ; Water Closets ; Lavatories, and the Arrangement of the 
Piping to Dispose of the Waste and to Insure both the Perfection of 
Tap Field and the Dilution of the Corrosive Agents through Positive 
Circulation in Drainage System, 

Part IV deals more extensively with Waste Piping; The Size; The 
Methods of Calculating and Arriving at the Proper Size; Mathematics 
and Data are all arranged in an exhaustive and instructive manner. 
Trench work is treated in the same way. 

Part V will be of special benefit to those who do suburban work, as it 
covers Estimating; Topographical Work; Making and Cleaning Solder; 
Wiping Joints; Tank Lining; Making Lead Bends; Old Time Lead 
Work; Country Gas Lighting, Tools and The Profit End of the Business. 

560 Pages. 6^ x 9^ in. 500 Figs. Cloth. $4.00 
Sent Prepaid by David Williams Company, 239 W. 39th St., N. Y. 




Mutton's Joint Wiping and Lead Work 

If well written text and moving picture illustrations of the 
work can take the place of personal instruction in joint wiping 
on lead, copper and brass pipes and the contingent manipulation 
of lead, this new manual will do it. It is a companion volume to 
"Lead Working" in size and method of handling 
the subject, and will prove of inestimable value 
to every one interested in plumbing. 

The author has found by actual experience 
what to avoid and the best methods to pursue 
under the varying conditions which arise in the 
preparation and wiping of joints on all kinds of 
pipes. He has explained each step as shown in 
the photographs, so the mechanic will have no 
difficulty in understanding. He tells why the 
^^■»**^*^ joints are made as illustrated, just as though the 
reader was watching him do the work. 
Any one of the hundred or more clearly illustrated kinks 
and labor saving short-cut methods of doing work given in this 
handy volume may save you many times its cost either in time 
and material or by helping you to become so expert that you 
command higher wages. 

Special attention is given to the preparation, tempering and 
judging of solder and to the tools required. Tables of melting 
points of solder, tin and lead are given with methods of telling 
the heat of solder by its appearance. This is the only book that 
gives information on doctoring solder in removing impurities, 
improving condition of poor solder and avoiding deterioration. 

Chapter XII is especially interesting as it contains information 
that is required by every plumber who wishes to become adept in 
the art. Among the important items covered are Joints on tin, 
copper and brass pipe. Preparing copper pipe in a manner that 
will insure the tinning staying there. Soldering ammonia pipes, 
The component parts of Bismuth solder, etc. 

How often do you have to stop to answer questions or show 
jiome helper how to hold his cloth and pipe to make a good joint. 
Wouldn't it be a lot easier to give him a book like this? 

Contents: — Solder for Joint Wiping; Tools Required in Joint Wiping; 
Data on Length of Joints ; Weight of Solder ; Size of Cloths, etc. ; Sep- 
aration of Joints for Wiping; One and Two Hand Methods of Joint 
Wiping; Wiping Joints by Rolling Methods and Tinning Brass Work; 
Preparing Branch Joints for Wiping ; Wiping Vertical and Horizontal 
Branch Joints ; Wiping Vertical Round Joints ; Floor and Wall Flanges ; 
Wiping Joints on Large Pipes ; Wiping Y Branch and Overcast Joints ; 
Wiping Joints on Various Kinds of Pipes 

80 Pages. 5x8 in. 115 Figs. Cloth bound. Price $0.50 

Sent Prepaid by David Williams Company, 239 W. 39th St., N. Y. 




Snow's Principles of Heating 

A comprehensive and practical treatise on applied theory in all classes of 
heating, written so the mechanic can understand it. Every detail in the design 
and installation of modem steam and hot water, vacuum 
and vapor, central station and mill heating systems is 
clearly explained and well illustrated with diagrams showing 
the various stages of the work. The heating power of fuels 
under various conditions in all the devices now in use is also 
exhaustively treated. Special attention has been given to 
the heat unit method of figuring radiation. It explains 
this important phase of heating practice so simply that 
anyone may understand and use it correctly. This section 
alone will be worth the price of the book to the mechanic 
or student. 

Contents. — Heating Power of Fuels, Boilers and Combi- 
nation Heaters; Gas, Oil and Electricity vs. Coal, and the 
Capacity and Fuel Consumption of House-heating Boilers; 
Heat Given Off by Direct Radiators and Coils; The Loss of 
Heat by Transmission; Computing Radiation; Heating Equivalents; Specific 
Heat; Humidity; The Heating and Cooling of Air, etc.; Heating Water; Capac- 
ities of Pipes for Hot Water Heating; The Flow of Steam in Pipes and the Capac- 
ities of Pipes for Steam Heating Systems and for Steam Boilers; Modified Systems 
of Steam Heating; Hot Water Heating by Forced Circulation; Central Steam 
Heating Plants and Mill Heating; The Steam Loop; Non-Conducting Coverings; 
Miscellaneous Tables and Furnace Tests. 

224 Pages. 6x9 in. 62 Figs. 59 Tables. Cloth. $2.00 

Fuller's Designing Heating and Ventilating Systems 

This book treats on the practical application of the best engineering rules 
and formulas in e very-day use. It tells how to lay out a Steam, Hot Water, 
Furnace and Ventilating Equipment for any kind of a building. The entire con- 
tents are presented in a simple and easily understood manner. 

The subject matter has been adopted from lecture courses given by the author 
before various institutions interested in heating and ventilating, including Y. M. 
C. A. and other classes. It gets right down to practical heating in the very first 
chapter, illustrates and describes the detailed use of exactly the same methods 
that the most proficient engineers use. It tells how to determine the sizes and 
proportions of equipment for e very-day work. It helps you to solve difficult 
heating and ventilating problems that may confront you for the first time. 
220 Pages. 6 X 9 in. 78 Figs. 37 Tables. Cloth. $2.00 

Lincoln's Steam and Hot Water Heating 

A text-book for the student and mechanic covering the principles of design 
and installation of all systems of heating, with a series of test questions. 

Contents. — Physics of Heating; Systems of Heating; Boilers; Radiation: 
Pipe and Fittings; Low-pressure Steam Heating; Exhaust-steam Heating; 
Hot Water Heating; Special Systems of Heatmg; Hot-blast Heating. 
168 Pages. 6x9 in. 103 Figs. Cloth. $1.50 

Questions and Answers on Steam and Hot Water Heating 

It takes up systematically and concisely the subjects of boilers, flues, fuel and 
combustion, radiation, radiator connections, character and use of valves, pipe 
and fittings, the various systems of steam heating and hot water heating, ven- 
tilation, vacuum and vapor heating, accelerated hot water heating, etc., etc. 
135 Pages. 43^x7 in. 57 Figs. Cloth. $1.00 

Sent Prepaid by David Williams Company, 239 W. 39th St., N. Yr 




Snow's Pipe Fitting Charts 

Every fitter and heating inspector ought to have a copy of this authoritative 
work, for its carefully prepared diagrams show the correct methods of making 
modern piping connections in steam and hot water systems. 

This book deals entirely with piping details and the author has arranged 
the matter with the diagrams on the right-hand pages and the 
explanations on the facing pages so as to give the whole 
story at a glance. 

In selecting the subjects the endeavor was to cover both 
the difficult and common practice of the expert with the die 
and tongs. They are carefully classified for quick reference 
and the perspective sketches cover risers, supply branches, 
expansion loops and connections to radiators, boilers, engines 
and pumps, expansion tanks, etc. The details of fittings, 
valves, packed joints, ash pits, etc., are all clearly shown. 

The chapter on drawings of piping and apparatus explain 
the approved methods of showing all the valve fittings, 
pipe lines, radiators, etc., with sizes, on layouts of heating 
systems. The entire book could be used for reference in 
drafting plans, for it is all carefully detailed. 

Valuable data is also included on the construction and support of ducts for 
ventilating systems, the weight of materials, obviating noises in fan systems and 
articles on bending pipe, boiler connections, valves, wrought pipe, flanged joints, 
filters, expansion of wrought pipe, schedule of standard flanges and dimensions 
of standard weight, wrought iron pipe, etc. 

Contents. — By Chapters: I. Piping for Hot Water Heating (30 pages). 
II. Piping for Steam Heating (92 pages). III. Boiler Engine Pump-room Con- 
nections, Castings, etc. (74 pages). IV. Drawings for Piping and Apparatus 
(16 pages). V. Galvanized Iron Work (40 pages). VI. Miscellaneous Articles 
Relating to Piping (31 pages). 

293 Pages. 6x9 in. 232 Figs. Cloth. $2.00 

Snow's Furnace Heating 

This book deals with the different types of furnaces, their construction, proper 
location and setting together with furnace fittings. It is the standard authority. 

Contents. — Furnaces; House Heating; Combination System; Air, Heating 
and Ventilation of School Buildings; Heating of Public Buildings, Churches and 
Stores; Fan Furnace Combination System; Temperature Control; Estimates 
and Contracts; Fuels; Miscellaneous Tables and Data; Furnace Fittings; Mis- 
cellaneous Notes, from Various Sources, on Furnace Heating. 

284 Pages. 6x9 in. 160 Figs. Cloth. $2.00 

Lyman's Steam and Hot Water Heating Estimate Book 

A new and thoroughly practical form for estimating small or large jobs, h'sting 
all the items of cost so that all the estimator has to do ie to fill in the quantities 
and prices opposite each item. 

It is of exceptional value as a check against loss through the omission of some 
of the elements of cost, for it lists everything apt to be required and thus serves 
as a reminder. It was carefully edited and finally approved by eight heating 
contractors before it was printed. 

The money columns are double, so that the estimate can be carried in the 
first and the actual cost in the second, if desired; or estimates may be itemized 
by groups in the first column and totals carried into the second. 

There are 100 forms, each of which is numbered, and an index is provided 
with columns for recording the name, number, date and file. 

208 Pages. 9 X 13 in. 100 Estimate Forms. Cloth. $2.00 

Sent Prepaid by David Williams Company, 239 W. 3pth St., N. Y. 



